In-situ Growth of Calcite at Devils Hole, Nevada: Comparison of Field and Laboratory Rates to a 500,000 Year Record of Near-Equilibrium Calcite Growth

Calcite grew continuously for 500,000 years on the submerged walls of an open fault plane (Devils Hole) in southern Nevada, U.S.A. at rates of 0.3 to 1.3 mm/ka, but ceased growing approximately 60,000 years ago, even though the fault plane remained open and was continuously submerged. The maximum initial in-situ growth rate on pre-weighed crystals of Iceland spar placed in Devils Hole (calcite saturation index, SI, is 0.16 to 0.21 at 33.7 °C) for growth periods of 0.75 to 4.5 years was 0.22 mm/ka. Calcite growth on seed crystals slowed or ceased following initial contact with Devils Hole groundwater. Growth rates measured in synthetic Ca-HCO₃ solutions at 34 °C, CO₂ partial pressures of 0.101, 0.0156 (similar to Devils Hole groundwater) and 0.00102 atm, and SI values of 0.2 to 1.9 were nearly independent of P_{CO 2}, decreased with decreasing saturation state, and extrapolated through the historical Devils Hole rate. The results show that calcite growth rate is highly sensitive to saturation state near equilibrium. A calcite crystal retrieved from Devils Hole, and used without further treatment of its surface, grew in synthetic Devils Hole groundwater when the saturation index was raised nearly 10-fold that of Devils Hole water, but the rate was only 1/4 that of fresh laboratory crystals that had not contacted Devils Hole water. Apparently, inhibiting processes that halted calcite growth in Devils Hole 60,000 years ago continue today.     

广州市白云区夏茅村岩溶地面塌陷特征及致灾因素和风险分析

广州市白云区夏茅村岩溶塌陷地质灾害严重,塌陷区内地质环境条件极其复杂,隐伏灰岩岩溶土洞发育强烈,溶洞、土洞规模较大,且发育多层溶洞,溶洞间相互连通,岩溶塌陷区基岩面起伏较大,高程变化剧烈,第四系覆盖层厚度较大,底部粉质黏土层土洞发育,土体中规模巨大的土洞是产生岩溶地面塌陷的基础条件。基岩断裂构造带及其影响带范围内,岩石破碎,形成导水断层,存在地下水迳流通道,沿断裂带地下水循环活跃,溶蚀强烈,形成岩溶强发育带,为岩溶塌陷的发生提供了良好的动力条件。区内楼房基础施工扰动了地下水和土洞间的平衡状态从而成为了地面塌陷发生的诱发因素。运用7项地质环境条件指标和5项经济人口指标分别定性评估岩溶地面塌陷的易发度和易损度,并将二者叠加进行地质灾害风险评估。研究结果表明,夏茅村潜在地质灾害风险大,只有严格控制地下水动力条件,才能避免再次发生岩溶地面塌陷。     

The structure of the Monte Amiata volcano-geothermal area (Northern Apennines, Italy): Neogene-Quaternary compression versus extension

The tectonic evolution of the Mt Amiata volcano-geothermal area is under discussion. Some authors state that this region, as well as the hinterland of the Northern Apennines, were affected by compression from the Cretaceous to the Quaternary. In contrast, most authors believe that extension drove the tectonic evolution of the Northern Apennines from the Early Miocene to the Quaternary. Field data, seismic analyses and borehole logs have been integrated in order to better define the structural features of the continental crust in the Mt Amiata geothermal area. In this paper I propose the hypothesis that the structure of the crust in the Mt Amiata volcano-geothermal area derives from two main geological processes: (1) contractional tectonics related to the stacking of the Northern Apennines (Cretaceous–Early Miocene), (2) subsequent extensional collapse of the hinterland of the mountain chain, and related opening of the Northern Tyrrhenian Sea (Early Miocene–Quaternary). Compressional and extensional structures characterise the Mt Amiata region, although extensional structures dominate its geological framework. In particular the extension produced: (a) Middle-Late Miocene boudinage of the previously stacked tectonic units; (b) Pliocene–Quaternary normal faulting which favoured the emplacement of a magmatic body in the middle-upper crust; and (c) the eruption of the Mt Amiata volcano, which gave rise to an acid and intermediate volcanic complex (0.3–0.19 Ma). The extension produced the space necessary to accommodate the Middle-Late Miocene marine and continental sediments. Pliocene and Quaternary normal and transtensional faults dissected the previous structures and influenced the Early Middle Pliocene marine sedimentation within the structural depressions neighbouring the Mt Amiata volcano. The magmatic body was emplaced at depth (about 6–7 km) during the Pliocene extension, and produced the eruption of the Mt Amiata volcano during the Late Pleistocene. This gave rise to local uplift, presently reaching about 3,000 m, as well as a negative Bouguer anomaly (−16 mgal), both centred on the Mt Amiata area. The crustal dome shows a good correspondence with the convex shape of the regional seismic marker known as the K-horizon, which corresponds to the 450°C isotherm, and the areas with greatest heat flow. This is probably a consequence of the above-cited magmatic body presently in the process of solidification. A Late Pleistocene eruption occurred along a crustal fissure striking N50° (Mt Amiata Fault), which crosscuts the crustal dome. Hydrothermal circulation, proven by the occurrence of thermal springs and gas vents (mainly CO₂ and H₂S), mainly occurs along the Mt Amiata Fault both in the northeastern ans southwestern sides of the volcano.     

北京市丰台区东高地岩溶裂隙水与第四系地下水的水力联系

专家一般认为东高地地区寒武系岩溶裂隙水的补给来源以上游的佣向径流为主,与第四系地下水没有明显的水力联系;通过近来地下水位动态监测和岩溶裂隙水的同住素成分研究,我们认为寒武系岩溶裂隙水与第四系地下水之间有着明显的水力联系。     

广东佛山市高明区李家村岩溶塌陷群成因机理分析

以自然诱发的李家村岩溶塌陷群为研究对象,在系统收集区域地质、构造、工程、水文、环境、气象、历史灾害等资料的基础上,结合钻探揭露结果,查明了李家村岩溶塌陷群所在区域地质环境条件和岩溶发育特征,分析了形成过程,并探讨了成因机理。结果表明：（1）李家村岩溶塌陷群所在区域覆盖层为带“天窗”的“隔−透”交替型地质结构、基岩可溶岩砾状灰岩中方解石含量高易溶蚀,为土洞和溶洞形成和发展起到决定性作用;北东向和北西向断裂交叉叠加作用、紧靠西江和存在古河道,为地下水潜蚀强径流和频繁交换提供通道,对岩溶发育起到主导作用;地表水和地下水连通性好有助于降雨诱发岩溶塌陷;（2）李家村岩溶塌陷群的发生过程经过三个阶段：前期水渗气压阶段→中期软化塌陷阶段→后期振动群塌阶段,致塌模式属渗压−重力−软化型。（3）李家村岩溶塌陷群是在特殊的“岩−土−水−气”组合地质环境条件下,由强降雨作用诱发并导致土洞垮塌而引起一连串自然塌陷所形成的。     

徐州废黄河断裂带对岩溶塌陷的控制作用

徐州城区是岩溶塌陷地质灾害危害严重的区域,已发生的塌陷均展布在废黄河断裂带内,有明显的规律性,为断裂带地下水富集区过量抽水所造成。研究表明,废黄河断裂带内岩溶发育,发育有向上开口的溶洞和裂隙,断裂带沟通了不同时代的含水层,形成了地下水强径流带或富集带;地堑式断裂带构成的负地形形成了晚更新世和全新世古河道,古河道区域形成"单一透水型盖层"和"透-阻型盖层",使黄河泛滥沉积的砂性土直接覆盖在岩溶含水层上,为过量抽水发生岩溶塌陷提供了重要水动力条件。因此,废黄河断裂带及其伴生断裂控制了岩溶塌陷的形成条件,特别是岩溶发育强度、岩溶水文地质结构和地下水富集规律。     

鲁中山区中生代构造活动对现今岩溶地下水赋存规律的控制作用

为了掌握中生代构造运动以来鲁中山区岩溶地下水富集规律,以莱芜盆地为例,通过水文地质调查及数据统计分析、钻探施工、地质露头观测、碳酸盐岩可溶组分分析等方法,对中生代构造活动特征、岩浆活动特征,及其对岩溶地下水赋存规律的控制作用进行研究。结果表明：鲁中山区具有典型盆-山结构水文地质特征,盆地南北两侧水文地质特征不尽相同;区域滑脱构造形成的层间虚脱、空隙、碎裂岩带,使得鲁中山区下寒武统朱砂洞组含水层表现为"似层状"特征;热液混合岩溶作用形成的溶蚀裂隙、洞穴可成为岩溶地下水良好的赋存空间;由中生代滑脱构造及热液岩溶活动形成的岩溶介质环境受同期或后期层间溶蚀裂隙及断层沟通,形成立体的岩溶地下水网络。岩溶地下水沿该网络径流、富集,形成鲁中山区特有的岩溶地下水赋存特征。     

化隆—循化盆地不同类型含水层组高氟地下水的分布及形成过程

天然成因的高氟地下水是世界范围内备受关注的环境问题和饮用水安全问题。前人对高氟地下水的形成过程已开展了大量研究,但是对于高原盆地复杂水文地质条件下不同类型含水层组(第四系松散层含水层、基岩裂隙或岩溶含水层以及新生代古近纪以来的碎屑岩含水层)高氟地下水的分布和形成过程尚不明确。本文以化隆—循化盆地为研究区,通过采集、测试研究区内的各类地下水样品,分析研究区内不同类型含水层中地下水的化学特征及同位素特征。结果表明,高氟地下水(1.007.73 mg/L)主要分布在沿黄河的河谷区域和巴燕低山丘陵区域的泉水和潜水中以及深部的承压水中,在垂向上高氟地下水无明显分布规律。接受黄河水入渗补给的河谷潜水中氟离子浓度较低,补给黄河的河谷潜水中氟离子浓度较高。贫钙富钠的弱碱性苏打型水有利于地下水中氟的富集。泉水和潜水中氟主要来源于萤石的溶解,而承压水中氟除了来源于萤石外,还来源于其他含氟矿物。对于潜水和第四系松散层泉水,蒸发浓缩作用促进了地下水中氟的富集。另外,阴离子竞争吸附作用、阳离子交换吸附作用是泉水(第四系松散层泉水和基岩裂隙泉水)和潜水中氟元素富集的主要原因,而承压水中氟离子浓度受竞争吸附作用影响较大,阳离子交换吸附作用影响较小。研究成果可为化隆—循化盆地低氟地下水的勘查和开发提供科学依据。     

Active transfer fault zone linking a segmented extensional system (Betics, southern Spain): Insight into heterogeneous extension driven by edge delamination

Pliocene and Quaternary tectonic structures mainly consisting of segmented northwest–southeast normal faults, and associated seismicity in the central Betics do not agree with the transpressive tectonic nature of the Africa–Eurasia plate boundary in the Ibero-Maghrebian region. Active extensional deformation here is heterogeneous, individual segmented normal faults being linked by relay ramps and transfer faults, including oblique-slip and both dextral and sinistral strike-slip faults. Normal faults extend the hanging wall of an extensional detachment that is the active segment of a complex system of successive WSW-directed extensional detachments which have thinned the Betic upper crust since middle Miocene. Two areas, which are connected by an active 40-km long dextral strike-slip transfer fault zone, concentrate present-day extension. Both the seismicity distribution and focal mechanisms agree with the position and regime of the observed faults. The activity of the transfer zone during middle Miocene to present implies a mode of extension which must have remained substantially the same over the entire period. Thus, the mechanisms driving extension should still be operating. Both the westward migration of the extensional loci and the high asymmetry of the extensional systems can be related to edge delamination below the south Iberian margin coupled with roll-back under the Alborán Sea; involving the asymmetric westward inflow of asthenospheric material under the margins.     

湘中灰山港—煤炭坝地区岩溶发育特征及其构造控制

湘中灰山港—煤炭坝地区岩溶塌陷发育,但对该地区岩溶发育总体特征及地质背景尚缺乏全面、深入地研究。文章依托1∶5万区域地质调查项目,结合相关资料,对该地区岩溶发育特征及其构造控制条件进行研究与总结。研究区可溶岩主要属于上古生界,少量发育于白垩系—古近系底部。地层潜在岩溶发育强度依次为马平组＞大埔组＞栖霞组和茅口组＞百花亭组（仅指其中的灰岩质砾岩）＞大隆组。平面上可划分为裸露型、覆盖型和埋藏型3种类型岩溶区,其中覆盖型岩溶区可进一步划分为强、中、弱3类。覆盖型和埋藏型岩溶区垂向上可分为浅部岩溶发育带、中部溶洞裂隙发育带和深部岩溶弱发育带。二叠统东吴抬升,中三叠世以来多次挤压和白垩纪—古近纪区域伸展等构造事件形成的褶皱、不同方向断裂裂隙系统、盆地基底构造,以及古近纪以来的差异升降运动等控制了岩溶发育特征。岩溶作用具有三个演化阶段:第一演化阶段形成龙潭组之下的溶孔、溶洞等古岩溶形态;第二演化阶段形成了岩溶低丘地貌;第三演化阶段形成覆盖型岩溶地貌。      

广州金沙洲岩溶区地下水位变化与地面塌陷及地面沉降关系探讨

金沙洲可溶性灰岩分布面积广,岩溶洞隙发育,洞隙及地下水的连通性强,上覆第四系松散土体中软土广泛分布,客观存在岩溶地面塌陷及地面沉降的地质环境条件。2007年4月起,受某高铁隧道施工抽排地下水的影响,金沙洲地下水出现异常波动,引发了地面塌陷及地面沉降。文章根据监测数据,经对比分析结果表明,区内岩溶地面塌陷及地面沉降受控于地下水位的变化,地下水位波动至基岩面附近时,是地面塌陷较活跃的时期,地面沉降与地下水位变化呈正向相关。文章进一步对地面沉降与地下水位变化关系的机理进行了探讨,认为目前地下水位尚未恢复正常的区域仍存在地面塌陷及地面沉降的隐患。     

隐伏碳酸盐岩区第四系松散盖层稳定性分析

在被第四系松散岩类覆盖的碳酸盐岩分布区，由于地下水动力条件改变（如水源超采、矿山排水、矿坑突水等引起的岩溶水位变化），常引发岩溶塌陷地质灾害。为了解第四系松散堆积物厚度与发生岩溶塌陷的关系，通过综合分析山东省岩溶矿区和供水水源地历年来发生的岩溶塌陷分布规律、形态特征及发生过程等，采用应力平衡法剖析了岩溶塌陷的形成机理与松散盖层的稳定性，为隐伏碳酸盐岩区工程地质勘察和岩溶塌陷防治提供参考依据。     

Evolution, Migration, Controlling Factors and Forming Setting of Mesozoic Basins in Western Shandong

The distinctive topography in western Shandong province consists of several NW-WNW-trending mountain ranges and intervening basins. Basins, in which late-stage sediments to the south have progressively overlapped the earlier sediments and ＂basement＂ rocks of the hanging-wall block, are bounded by S-SW-dipping normal faults to the north. Basin analysis reveals the Jurassic-Cretaceous sedimentary rocks accumulated both within the area of crustal extension and during extensional deformation; they contain a record of a sequence of tectonic events during stretching and can be divided into four tectonic-sequence episodes. These basins were initially developed as early as ca. 200 Ma in the northern part of the study area, extending dominantly N-S from the Early Jurassic until the Late Cretaceous. Although with a brief hiatus due to changes in stress field, to keep uniform N-S extensional polarity in such a long time as 130 Ma requires a relatively stable tectonic controlling factor responsible for the NW- and E-W-extensional basins. The formation of the extensional basins is partly concurrent with regional magmatism, but preceded magmatism by 40 Ma. This precludes a genetic link between local magmatism and extension during the Mesozoic. Based on integrated studies of basins and deformation, we consider that the gravitational collapse of the early overthickened continental crust may be the main tectonic driver for the Mesozoic extensional basins. From the Early Jurassic, dramatic reduction in north-south horizontal compressive stress made the western Shandong deformation belt switch from a state of failure under shortening to one dominated by extension and the belt gravitationally collapsed and horizontally spread to the south until equilibrium was established; synchronously, the normal faults and basins were developed based on the model of simple-shear extensional deformation. This may be relative to the gravitational collapse of the Mesozoic plateau in eastern China.     

Brittle tectonics and major dextral strike-slip zone in the Buda karst (Budapest,Hungary)

Three large (kilometric-scale) caves were studied in the Buda hills and the main directions of cave corridors, fault planes and mineralized veins were measured. Different stages of mineralizations are recognised: calcite scaleno-hedrons, baryte, silica, gypsum. New investigations of fluid inclusions in the baryte suggest a crystallization temperature of 50 °C and a freshwater fluid source. Microtectonic analysis allows the reconstruction of the successive tectonic events: (1) a NE-SW extensional phase at the Late Eocene-Early Oligocene limit (phase I), (2) a strike-slip phase with NW-SE compression and NE-SW extension during the Late Oligocene-Early Miocene (phase II), (3) a NW-SE transtensional phase (phase III) and finally (4) a NE-SW extensional phase of Quaternary age (phase IV). The major phase is the strike-slip one, characterized by an important dextral strikeslip zone: the Ferenc-hegy zone.     

山东省泰莱盆地岩溶塌陷发育特征及形成机理

泰莱盆地位于山东省中部,截止2013年底,盆地内共发生有记录岩溶塌陷97处,161点次,严重威胁人民生命财产安全。文章在总结前人研究基础上,结合最新调查、监测成果,研究了泰莱盆地岩溶塌陷的分布特征、地质结构模式及其形成机理。结果表明:盆地内岩溶塌陷点多集中分布于岩溶地下水降落漏斗及其影响范围内;塌陷点分布受构造控制明显;塌陷区第四系厚度一般小于30 m,下伏基岩主要为奥陶纪灰岩;80%以上的塌陷集中发生于汛期。根据岩溶塌陷点土层结构、地下水动力条件的不同,建立了3种岩溶塌陷的基本地质模式:单层、双层和多层结构土层岩溶塌陷,其中单层结构土层岩溶塌陷的形成历经“真空吸蚀-崩解剥落-塌陷”3个阶段;双层土层结构岩溶塌陷形成演化过程可概括为“渗透变形-崩解垮塌-塌陷”或“真空吸蚀-渗透变形-塌陷”3个阶段;多层结构土层岩溶塌陷历经“真空吸蚀-渗透变形-崩解垮塌-塌陷”4个阶段。      

黔中高原台面浅覆盖型岩溶塌陷分布及影响因素浅析

黔中高原台面处于贵州省第二阶梯,平均海拔800～1 600 m。具有可溶岩分布面积广,岩溶极其发育,第四系土层覆盖薄,地下水埋深浅、地下水动力条件强等特点,岩溶塌陷是该区主要地质灾害之一。文章以黔中地区岩溶塌陷调查项目统计资料为依据,对岩溶塌陷分布及影响因素进行分析,结果为83.8%的岩溶塌陷分布在的峰丛谷地和溶丘谷地中、97.5%的岩溶塌陷分布于土层厚度1～10 m黏土中、83.7% 的岩溶塌陷分布于三叠系中统关岭组和中下统安顺组白云岩地层中、73.3%的岩溶塌陷沿活动断裂及褶皱地带分布、地下水是区内最主要的触发因素;在人为因素方面与地下水开采强度、城镇化进程等因素密切相关,且随城镇化进程及抽水活动的增加而增多。      

Fault kinematic and Plio-Quaternary paleostress evolution of the Bakırçay Basin,Western Turkey

ABSTRACT

At the end of the Cenozoic, western Turkey was fragmented by intense intra-continental tectonic deformation resulting in the formation of two extensional areas: a transtensional pull-apart basin systems in the northwest, and graben systems in the central and southwest areas. The question of the connection of this Late Cenozoic extensional tectonics to plate kinematics has long been an issue of discussion. This study presents the results of the fault slip data collected in Bak?rçay Basin in the west of Turkey and addresses changes in the direction of extensional stresses over the Plio-Quaternary. Field observations and quantitative analysis show that Bak?rçay Basin is not a simple graben basin that has evolved during a single phase. It started as a graben basin with extensional regime in the Pliocene and was transformed into a pull-apart basin under the influence of transtensional forces during the Quaternary. A chronology of two successive extensional episodes has been established and provides reasoning to constrain the timing and location of subduction-related back-arc tectonics along the Aegean region and collision-related extrusion tectonics in Turkey. The first NW–SE trending extension occurred during the Pliocene extensional phase, characterized by slab rollback and progressive steepening of the northward subduction of the African plate under the Anatolian Plate. Western Turkey has been affected, during the Middle Quaternary, by regional subsidence, and the direction of extension changed to N–S, probably in relation with the propagation of the North Anatolian Fault System. Since the Late Quaternary, NE–SW extension dominates northwest Turkey and results in the formation and development of elongated transtensional basin systems. Counterclockwise rotation of Anatolian block which is bounded to the north by the right-lateral strike-slip North Anatolian Fault System, accompanies to this extensional phase.     

黔中地区浅覆盖型岩溶塌陷成因机制与防治对策--以紫云县白云小学为例

黔中地区处于贵州省第二阶梯,平均海拔800~1600 m。具有可溶岩分布面积广、岩溶极其发育、第四系土层覆盖薄、地下水埋深浅、地下水动力条件强等特点。岩溶地面塌陷是该区主要地质灾害之一。为了查明贵州省紫云县白云小学岩溶塌陷的成因及发育机制,在塌陷区开展了水文地质调查、地球物理勘探、水文地质工程地质钻探、岩土样测试等多项工作。综合研究表明,白云小学岩溶塌陷是特殊的"水-土-岩"不良因素共同作用的产物。根据塌陷区的岩土组构特征,建议在黔中岩溶地区进行工程选址前,采用"监测预防+控水+工程治理"综合防治措施。     

重庆中梁山岩溶地面塌陷特征及形成机理

通过详细调查重庆中梁山地区的岩溶地面塌陷灾害情况,分析出该区地面塌陷特征及形成机理。结果表明:岩溶地面塌陷主要分布在嘉陵江组中的地势低洼处、断层和溶槽处,多发生在降雨量大和地下水水位陡降时期,是自然因素和人类活动共同作用下的结果,数量较多,以土洞型为主;其致塌的力学机制以真空吸蚀作用和潜蚀作用为主,多种作用为辅;在具备岩溶塌陷发生的地质条件下,隧道建设过程中的强排水、降雨和村级公路修建与运营过程中会诱发岩溶地面塌陷的发生。根据岩溶地面塌陷的致塌力学机制和诱发因素,提出预防降雨形成的地表水过度聚集,隧道建设避免地下水陡降,村级公路和隧道选址避开岩溶发育区域等措施,以防止岩溶地面塌陷发生。      

Geomorphological, geochemical and geo-environmental aspects of karstification in the urban areas of Kerman city, southeastern, Iran

Kerman city has a semiarid-arid climate with an average annual precipitation of about 158 mm. The area is underlain by soluble subsoil and alluvial deposits, overlying highly fractured Cretaceous limestones. Geo-environmental studies indicate that both paleokarst and active karst features are developed in the area. The paleokarsts were developed in the Upper Cretaceous limestone during the cold, humid periods of Post Cretaceous and probably Early Quaternary time and include honeycombs, solution flutes, rillenkarren, caverns, and solution collapse dolines. Active karst landforms occur by combined piping-induced and limestone solution at depth in subsoils, and alluvial deposits and bajada that overly potent karstic limestones and cover subsidence sinkholes and subjacent alluvial karst collapse dolines. Many factors, such as soluble compounds (salt and gypsum), desiccation cracks, and Qanat (dug water wells), could contribute to the development of karstic landforms. The most immediate cause for active karst landforms is considered to be the drawdown of the water table in the area. There is an increasing demand for groundwater consumption to irrigate pistachio fields. Excessive pumping of the groundwater lowers the water table about 80 cm per year. This rate of drawdown accelerates land subsidence (about 6 cm per year), creates circular patterns of fractures in the ground and in buildings, disrupts agricultural work and urbanization projects, and tilts foundations. These geohazards indicate that ground sinking and karstification are in progress in the alluvial deposits and underlying limestones. The disturbance and expense caused by the geohazards could be mitigated by the application of overhead sprinkler irrigation for pistachio fields or by planting less thirsty plants.