Early Precambrian stratigraphy of central and southern Rajasthan,India

Structural, stratigraphic and petrologic studies between Amet and Sembal in the Udaipur district of southcentral Rajasthan indicate that all the rocks belonging to the Banded Gneissic Complex, the Aravalli Group and the Raialo Formation have been involved in isoclinal folding on a westerly trend, co-axial refolding, and upright folding on a north to north-northeast trend. There is neither an unconformity nor an overlap between the Aravallis and the Raialos. The conglomerates supposed to mark the erosional unconformity above the Banded Gneissic Complex near Rajnagar is a tectonic mélange of folded and torn quartz veins in mica schist within the Aravalli Group. The Aravalli—Raialo metasediments have been migmatized synkinematically with the first folding to give rise to the Banded Gneissic Complex; the gneissic complex does not have any separate stratigraphic entity. By contrast, there is an undoubted erosional unconformity between the type Aravalli rocks and the underlying Sarara granite to the south. These relations, coupled with the continuity of the Aravalli rocks of Udaipur northward to the metasedimentary rocks of the Sembal—Amet area along the strike, and a comparable structural history, point to granitic rocks of at least two generations in the Early Precambrian of central and southern Rajasthan. Preliminary radiometric dating of rocks of known stratigraphic—structural relationship seems to confirm the presence of granitic rocks of two ages in the Early Precambrian, and of a considerable interval between the deposition of the Aravalli—Raialo rocks and the Delhi rocks. The Udaipur granite, post-dating the first deformation but preceding the upright folding on the northerly trend, provides evidence for granitic activity of a third phase before the deposition of rocks of the Delhi Group.     

Hydrogeomorphology of the central Luni basin,Western Rajasthan, (India)

This paper examines the interrelationships and interactions of the geomorphic features and the various hydrological parameters which control the development of water potential zones in the central Luni basin. Aerial photo-interpretation techniques were used to delineate the boundaries of geomorphological features, and facilitated the identification of twelve types of aquifers in eight geomorphological settings. The water potentials of these aquifers have been evaluated by taking into consideration nine important hydrological parameters which together govern water quality and yield. This investigation has revealed that the development of zones of ground-water potential is principally governed by the geomorphic characteristics of the terrain, which in turn is controlled by lithological variability, geological structure, drainage pattern, climatic characteristics, etc. The relevance of geomorphic characteristics has been evaluated by weight point analysis. Based on these findings, it is suggested that detailed studies of geomorphic features are of paramount significance for the rapid delineation of possible ground-water potential zones in arid and semi-arid regions.     

The problem of the Precambrian basement in Rajasthan,western India

The Banded Gneissic Complex (BGC) of Rajasthan, considered to form the basement underlying the Precambrian (Proterozoic) Aravalli metasediments, shows an erosion surface marked by a conglomerate and an angular unconformity, with gneissic foliation crossing the metasedimentary bands at only a few places. The BGC is a composite gneiss, evolved by extensive migmatization of metasedimentary rocks of diverse composition, and possibly metaigneous rocks. The contact between the BGC and the Aravalli rocks is a gently curved surface, whereas the gneissic foliation, as well as the large-scale metasedimentary enclaves within the gneissic complex, show all the intricate patterns of super-imposed folding traceable in the Aravalli rocks. This implies that the “basement” gneisses have been involved in ductile deformation with the Aravalli rocks, the migmatization being synkinematic with the first deformation in the latter. All these apparently conflicting lines of evidence can be resolved if the gneisses, as we see them now, represent not the original, but the mobilized basement, with the BGC-Aravalli boundary representing, for a large part, a migmatite front, rather than the original basement-cover interface. Only at a few places was there a chance of the original basement escaping mobilization and thus, little chance of identifying this original interface.     

Inversion of fold-hinge in superposed folding: An example from the Precambrian of central Rajasthan,India

Axial culminations and depressions of folds are common in regions of superposed deformations involving two sets of folds at high angles to each other. If the intensity of the later folding in these cases exceeds a particular limit, plunge reversal of the early folds gives way to “plunge inversion”. In such instances, segments of early folds rotate through end-on or reclined geometry while being refolded. And instead of plunge reversal at the hinge zones of later folds, the early folds plunge in the same direction in both limbs of the later folds. As a result, an antiform will pass along the axial trend to a synform. A particularly clear instance of plunge inversion has been noted from the “Sawar outlier” comprising a metasedimentary sequence within the older Banded Gneissic Complex in central Rajasthan. In Sawar, the southern segment of a south-southwest-trending synformal early fold has been inverted to attain an antiformal geometry because of superposition of a later fold at high angles to the early fold axes and axial planes. The deformation history of the large-scale folds has been traced and the stratigraphic implications of the plunge inversion discussed. From the movement pattern, it seems justifiable to correlate the metasedimentary sequence of the outlier with the Late Precambrian Delhi Group of parametamorphic rocks.     

Precambrian stromatolite and other structures in the Rajpura-Dariba polymetallic ore deposit,Rajasthan, India

Intimate association of 2 billion years old stromatolite with pyritic lead-zinc ores in the Precambrian polymetallic deposit at Rajpura-Dariba in Rajasthan, which hitherto remained unreported, provides an additional documentation of the syn(-dia)-genetic mineralization. The growth form and petrography of the stromatolite structure have been described and an explanation sought regarding the concentration of sulfides along the siliceous and carbonaceous laminations, as well as in the intercolumnar regions. Consideration of the geologic features noted in the mineralized zone and surrounding region suggests that the stratiform ores were deposited in a near-shore shallow marine environment, developed on basement highs and associated with euxinic conditions. Later, the ores were metamorphosed under conditions reaching upto amphibolite facies during a three-stage deformational history of their enclosing rocks. Some salient features of the secondary structures in the ores have been discussed in relation to this deformation history.     

Deformational and crystallization history of the Precambrian rocks in north-central Aravalli Mountain,Rajasthan, India

Large-scale structures, textures and mineral assemblages in the Precambrian rocks of the Banded Gneissic Complex and the overlying Delhi Group in north-central Aravalli Mountain reveal a complex deformational-crystallization history. In the basement Gneissic Complex at least three deformational events, D₀, D₁ and D₂, and two separate episodes of metamorphism, M₁ and M₂, are recognized. The supracrustal Delhi Rocks display only two phases of deformation, D₁ and D₂, associated with a single protracted period of metamorphism, M₂.The first phase of deformation (D₁) of the Delhi orogeny (1650-900 m.y.) produced large isoclinal folds that are overturned towards the southeast and have gentle plunges in NE and SW directions. The second phase of deformation (D₂) gave rise to tight open folds on the limbs and axial-plane surfaces of the D₁ folds. These folds generally plunge towards the N and NNW at 30°–80°. In the Basement Complex one more deformation (D₀) of the Pre-Delhi orogeny (> 2000 m.y.) is recorded by the presence of reclined and recumbent folds with W to WNW trending fold axes. The D₀ folds were superimposed by D₁ and D₂ folds during the Delhi orogeny.The three deformational events have been correlated with the crystallization periods of minerals in the rocks and a setting in time is established for this part of the Aravalli range.     

Penecontemporaneous dolomitization in the Precambrian Bhander Limestone,Rajasthan, India — A petrographic attestation

Dolomitization in the Precambrian Bhander Limestones around Bhainsrorgarh, Rajasthan was largely penecontemporaneous with deposition in tidally influenced evaporating pans. Regardless of the circumstantial evidence relating to the environment, prelithification dolomitization is evident independently from intimate control of the depositional fabric on the process, swerving of calcite laminae around dolomite porphyrotopes, and streaming of mica flakes around dolospars. Penecontemporaneity of this dolomitization is inferred from its confinement within selected lamina/e or bed/s, leaving the adjacent laminae or beds completely unaffected, plastic deformation and occasional mechanical failure of seams of pallisade calcite crystals infilling shrinkage cracks, formation of thin dolomitized crusts at lamina-top surfaces and its downward gradation to primary calcmicrite by gradual depletion of dolomite concentration and erosion of such crusts prior to deposition of overlying sediments.In modern settings penecontemporaneous dolomite crystals are usually less than 5 micron size but in present case they are mostly much coarser. This coarsening presumably arises from epitaxial growth on initially micron-sized dolomites.There are, of course, partly overlapping phases in dolomitization. Epigenetic dolomitization operated in a subordinate scale and has sometimes been manifested as passive precipitation in voids.

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Zusammenfassung Dolomitization in the Precambrian Bhander Limestone around Bhainsrorgarh, Rajaszeitig mit der Sedimentation in Gezeiten-beeinflußten Evaporit-Becken. Über diesen Hinweis aus dem Ablagerungsmilieu hinaus ist eine Dolomitisierung vor der Lithifikation auch aus dem Gefüge zu erkennen. Hierzu gehören Dolomitkristalle, die von Kalzitkrusten umhüllt sind, sowie die Anordnung von Glimmerblättchen um Dolomite. Synsedimentäre Dolomitisierung wird weiterhin belegt durch die Beeinflussung bestimmter Sedimentlagen und durch die Überlagerung von ungestörten Sedimenten, die Füllung von Schrumpfungsrissen mit Pallisaden-Kalzit nach der Dolomitbildung, sowie die Kristallisation von Dolomitkrusten an Sedimentoberflächen und deren Aufarbeitung.Rezenten Beobachtungen nach sind synsedimentäre Dolomite meist sehr feinkörnig; die hier gefundenen größeren Dolomite werden auf ein späteres epitaxiales Überwachsen zurückgeführt. Darüber hinaus gibt es auch später Dolomitisierungsphasen von untergeordneter Bedeutung.

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Résumé La dolomitisation du calcaire précabrien du Bhander dans le Rajasthan se produit en même temps que la sédimentation dans des vases d'évaporation influencé par les marées. A partir de cette indication relative au milieu du depôt, une dolomitisation est aussi discernable dans les textures, avant la lapidification. A ceci appartiennent les cristaux dolomitiques qui sont enveloppés de croûtes de calcite, ainsi la disposition de paillettes de mica autour des dolomites. La dolomitisation synsédimentaire sera encore complexée par l'influence de certaines couches de sédiments par le recouvrement de sédiments qui n'ont pas été dérangés, par le remplissage de craquelures de compaction par de la calcite en palissade après la formation de la dolomite ainsi que la cristallisation des croûtes de dolomite à la surface des sédiments et leur remeniement. D'après de récentes observations, les dolomites synsédimentaires sont la plupart à grain très fin. Les dolomites les plus grandes qui ont été trouvées ici, doivent être attribuées à un gonflement épitaxique plus tarif. En outre, il y a aussi des phases de la dolomitisaitons tardives qui n'ont qu'une signification secondaire.

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Evolution of the Banded Gneissic Complex of central Rajasthan,India

The Banded Gneissic Complex of central Rajasthan, the only gneissic basement in India considered to underlie an early Precambrian sedimentary suite unconformably, comprises composite gneisses formed by extensive migmatization of metasedimentary rocks of diverse composition. The migmatites and the metasedimentaries maintain a structural continuity in a plan of superposed deformations, with the migmatite front involved in the early folding but transgressing the stratigraphic boundaries. Structures in the metasedimentary palaeosomes within the gneisses match in their entirety those in the migmatite host and the metasedimentary bands outside. On a smaller scale of microsections, migmatites show para tectonic crystallization with reference to the first deformation. The Banded Gneissic Complex thus loses its unique position in the Indian Precambrians as older than the earliest decipherable sedimentary series, but is older than the Aravalli rocks of the type area, the partially migmatized metasedimentaries belonging to an earlier series.     

Precambrian mafic magmatism in the Bastar craton,central India

The Bastar craton has experienced many episodes of mafic magmatism during the Precambrian. This is evidenced from a variety of Precambrian mafic rocks exposed in all parts of the Bastar craton in the form of volcanics and dykes. They include (i) three distinct mafic dyke swarms and a variety of mafic volcanic rocks of Precambrian age in the southern Bastar region; two sets of mafic dyke swarms are sub-alkaline tholeiitic in nature, whereas the third dyke swarm is high-Si, low-Ti and high-Mg in nature and documented as boninite-norite mafic rocks, (ii) mafic dykes of varying composition exposed in Bhanupratappur-Keskal area having dominantly high-Mg and high-Fe quartz tholeiitic compositions and rarely olivine and nepheline normative nature, (iii) four suites of Paleoproterozoic mafic dykes are recognized in and around the Chattisgarh basin comprising metadolerite, metagabbro, and metapyroxenite, Neoarchaean amphibolite dykes, Neoproterozoic younger fine-grained dolerite dykes, and Early Precambrian boninite dykes, and (iv) Dongargarh mafic volcanics, which are classified into three groups, viz. early Pitepani mafic volcanic rocks, later Sitagota and Mangikhuta mafic volcanics, and Pitepani siliceous high-magnesium basalts (SHMB). Available petrological and geochemical data on these distinct mafic rocks of the Bastar craton are summarized in this paper. Recently high precision U-Pb dates of 1891.1±0.9 Ma and 1883.0±1.4 Ma for two SE-trending mafic dykes from the BD2 (subalkaline) dyke swarm, from the southern Bastar craton have been reported. But more precise radiometric age determinations for a number of litho-units are required to establish discrete mafic magmatic episodes experienced by the craton. It is also important to note that very close geochemical similarity exist between boninite-norite suite exposed in the Bastar craton and many parts of the world. Spatial and temporal correlation suggests that such magmatism occurred globally during the Neoarchaean-Paleoproterozoic boundary. Many Archaean terrains were united as a supercontinent as Expanded Ur and Arctica at that time, and its rifting gave rise to numerous mafic dyke swarms, including boninitenorite, world-wide.     

Precambrian mafic magmatism in the Western Dharwar Craton,southern India

Mafic rocks of Western Dharwar Craton (WDC) belong to two greenstone cycles of Sargur Group (3.1–3.3 Ga) and Dharwar Supergroup (2.6–2.8 Ga), belonging to different depositional environments. Proterozoic mafic dyke swarms (2.4, 2.0–2.2 and 1.6 Ga) constitute the third important cycle. Mafic rocks of Sargur Group mainly constitute a komatiitic-tholeiite suite, closely associated with layered basic-ultrabasic complexes. They form linear ultramaficmafic belts, and scattered enclaves associated with orthoquartzite-carbonate-pelite-BIF suite. Since the country rocks of Peninsular Gneiss intrude these rocks and dismember them, stratigraphy of Sargur Group is largely conceptual and its tectonic environment speculative. It is believed that the Sargur tholeiites are not fractionated from komatiites, but might have been generated and evolved from a similar mantle source at shallower depths. The layered basic-ultrabasic complexes are believed to be products of fractionation from tholeiitic parent magma. The Dharwar mafic rocks are essentially a bimodal basalt-rhyolite association that is dominated by Fe-rich and normal tholeiites. Calc-alkaline basalts and andesites are nearly absent, but reference to their presence in literature pertains mainly to carbonated, spilitized and altered tholeiitic suites. Geochemical discrimination diagrams of Dharwar lavas favour island arc settings that include fore-, intra- and back-arcs. The Dharwar mafic rocks are possibly derived by partial melting of a lherzolite mantle source and involved in fractionation of olivine and pyroxene followed by plagioclase. Distinctive differences in the petrography and geochemistry of mafic rocks across regional unconformities between Sargur Group and Dharwar Supergroup provide clinching evidences in favour of distinguishing two greenstone cycles in the craton. This has also negated the earlier preliminary attempts to lump together all mafic volcanics into a single contemporaneous suite, leading to erroneous interpretations. After giving allowances for differences in depositional and tectonic settings, the chemical distinction between Sargur and Dharwar mafic suites throws light on secular variations and crustal evolution. Proterozoic mafic dyke swarms of three major periods (2.4, 2.0–2.2 and 1.6 Ga) occur around Tiptur and Hunsur. The dykes also conform to the regional metamorphic gradient, with greenschist facies in the north and granulite facies in the south, resulting from the tilt of the craton towards north, exposing progressively deeper crustal levels towards the south. The low-grade terrain in the north does not have recognizable swarms, but the Tiptur swarm consists essentially of amphibolites and Hunsur swarm mainly of basic granulites, all of them preserving cross-cutting relations with host rocks, chilled margins and relict igneous textures. There are also younger dolerite dykes scattered throughout the craton that are unaffected by this metamorphic zonation. Large-scale geochemical, geochronological and palaeomagnetic data acquisition through state-of-the-art instrumentation is urgently needed in the Dharwar craton to catch up with contemporary advancements in the classical greenstone terrains of the world.     

Precambrian stratigraphy of Sung-shan district,Honan, with special reference to tillite of Western Honan

Differences in altitude, degree of metamorphism, radiological dating, and paleontological evidence support the claim of the existence of the Sung-yang movement represented by the unconformity between the Teng-feng complex and the overlying Sung-shan group in Western Honan. The Sinian system unconformably underlies the tillite bed in Western Honan, or, if the tillite is missing, the Early Cambrian Kuang Ko conglomerate. The base of the Sung-shan quartzite of the Sung-shan group serves as the lower boundary of the Sinian system because 1) algal fossils are found in the Sung-shan group and 2) lithologically the Sung-shan group is similar to the Lower Sinian Chang Cheng series in Yen-shan region. Other evidence convinces the author that the Sinian system represents an era or sub-era of Precambrian time, instead of what is generally considered an epoch. The tillite bed in Western Honan is Early Cambrian, consequently younger than the Sinian glacial deposits in South China. – Author.     

Structural studies and their bearing on the Early Precambrian history of the Dharwar tectonic province,southern India

In the Dharwar tectonic province, the Peninsular Gneiss was considered to mark an event separating the deposition of the older supracrustal Sargur Group and the younger supracrustal Dharwar Supergroup. Compelling evidence for the evolution of the Peninsular Gneiss, a polyphase migmatite, spanning over almost a billion years from 3500 Ma to 2500 Ma negates a stratigraphic status for this complex, so that the decisive argument for separating the older and younger supracrustal groups loses its basis. Correlatable sequence of superposed folding in all the supracrustal rocks, the Peninsular Gneiss and the banded granulites, indicate that the gneiss ‘basement’ deformed in a ductile manner along with the cover rocks. An angular unconformity between the Sargur Group and the Dharwar Super-group, suggested from some areas in recent years, has been shown to be untenable on the basis of detailed studies, A number of small enclaves distributed throughout the gneissic terrane, with an earlier deformational, metamorphic and migmatitic history, provide the only clue to the oldest component which has now been extensively reworked.     

Facies analysis and depositional environments of the Bhander Limestone (Precambrian), southeastern Rajasthan and adjoining Madhya Pradesh,India

Special interest is attached to the Bhander Limestone because it is the only calcareous formation in the very thick elastic sequence of Precambrian age, designated informally as the “Upper” Vindhyan. The sedimentology of the Bhander Limestone was studied in the Mandalgarh-Singoli area of southeastern Rajasthan and adjoining Madhya Pradesh with a view to interpreting the depositional environments of the formation. This study has an important bearing on the exploration for oil in India and presents one of the few examples of Precambrian limestones of which thorough modern sedimentological analysis has been made.The Bhander Limestone comprises micritic limestones, crystalline dolostones, siltstones and shales that show desiccation structures (horizontal fenestrae, bird's-eye structures, mud cracks), very shallow small channels filled with flat-pebble breccia, algal lamination, palisade structure, and occasional ripple marks, ripple lamination and micro-cross-lamination. The major petrographic constituents are micrite, intraclasts, sparry-calcite cement, pseudospar and replacement dolomite. Seven environmentally significant microfacies have been recognized: micrite, silty micrite, graded micrite, dolomitized micrite, neomorphosed micrite, intrasparrudite and intramicrudite.The Bhander Limestone Formation has been divided vertically into four lithofacies: red argillaceous micritic limestones (lithofacies A), interlaminated blue micritic limestones and red dolomite (lithofacies B), olive calcareous shales (lithofacies C), and black micritic limestones (lithofacies D). Each lithofacies is characterized by certain megascopic sedimentary features and microfacies. The various lithofacies have been interpreted as representing deposition in the different subenvironments of a generally low-energy, marginal marine environment comprising tidal flats and lagoons. The vertical changes from one lithofacies to another are interpreted as reflecting the change from one subenvironment to another brought about by the landward shifting of the boundaries of these subenvironments in response to a transgression.     

The age of the Stuart Dyke Swarm and its bearing on the onset of late Precambrian sedimentation in central Australia

A Rb‐Sr age of 897 ± 9 m.y. is obtained for dolerite from the Stuart Dyke Swarm in the southern part of the Arunta Block, Northern Territory. The dyke swarm presents an older age limit for the unconformably overlying Heavitree Quartzite, basal formation of the Amadeus Basin sequence. This limit is consistent with all isotopic data with the exception of previously determined glauconite ages from the Vaughan Springs Quartzite, a correlative of the Heavitree Quartzite in the Ngalia Basin.     

早前寒武纪变质地层学研究的回顾与思考

主要论述了与早前寒武纪变质地层（学）有关的8个方面的问题：早前寒武纪变质地层的研究概况；早前寒武纪变质地层的复杂性和研究难度；早前寒武纪变质地层研究的思路和工作方法；早前寒武纪变质岩石地层单位岩群、岩组和杂岩的划分问题；重要区域性不整合的研究；鉴定变质地层的原岩类型、岩石性质和恢复古环境；正确区分变质地层和TTG岩系以及其他变质深成岩；变质地层时代的确定。另外，对今后的研究工作提出了3项建议。     

Vertical zonation and petrogenesis of the early Precambrian crust in Western Australia

Variations in metamorphic grade, structural style, isotopic ages and granite geochemistry observed within the Yilgarn craton, and between the Yilgarn and Pilbara cratons, Western Australia, are interpreted in terms of vertical zonation of the Archaean crust. We correlate the gneiss-granulite suite of the Wheat Belt (southwestern Yilgarn) with concealed coeval infracrustal roots of the low-grade granite—greenstone Kalgoorlie terrain (eastern Yilgarn). Differences between the Pilbara, Southern Cross and Laverton granite—greenstone blocks and the downfaulted linear greenstone belts of the Kalgoorlie block are interpreted in terms of deeper-level exposure in the first three blocks.Ultramafic—mafic volcanic sequences in the Yilgarn craton can be divided into at least two major groups — the lower greenstones, regarded as relicts of a once extensive simatic crust, and the significantly younger upper greenstones, believed to have formed within linear troughs following the intrusion of Na-rich granites.At least three major Archaean granite phases occur in Western Australia: (1) 3.1-2.9 b.y. old (recognized to date only in the western Yilgarn and in the Pilbara craton); (2) 2.8-2.7 b.y. old, and (3) 2.6 b.y. old (the two latter phases can only be separated from each other in the eastern Yilgarn, and phase (3) is also identified in the Pilbara). In the main, granites of phases (1) and (2) are Na-rich and those of phase (3) are K-rich. There is evidence for a secular increase in Rb levels and initial ⁸⁷Sr/⁸⁶Sr ratios. It is suggested that the K-rich granites grade down into Na-rich granites, and the former were generated by ensialic anatexis resulting in upward migration of K, Rb, U, and Th-enriched magmas.A review of data from several Archaean cratons in other continents suggests that evidence from these regions can be interpreted in terms of the general model of crustal evolution proposed for Western Australia. Implications of this model concerning petrogenesis of Archaean plutonic and volcanic suites, geothermal gradients and tectonic evolution of greenstone belts are discussed. Partial melting associated with mantle diapirism is thought to have given rise to the ultramafic—mafic volcanic cycles. Widespread subsidence and partial melting of this crust yielded Na-rich acid magmas. The development of the upper greenstones was confined to linear belts in a partly cratonized crustal environment. About 2.6 b.y. ago a rise in the geothermal gradient resulted in regional metamorphism and crusctal anatexis which gave rise to the K-rich granites.