Petrography, mineralogy and geochemistry of the Zarshuran Carlin-like gold deposit, northwest Iran

Gold mineralisation at Zarshuran, northwestern Iran, is hosted by Precambrian carbonate and black shale formations which have been intruded by a weakly mineralised granitoid. Granitoid intrusion fractured the sedimentary rocks, thereby improving conditions for hydrothermal alteration and mineralisation. Silicification is the principal hydrothermal alteration along with decalcification and argillisation. Three hydrothermal sulphide mineral assemblages have been identified: an early assemblage of pyrrhotite, pyrite and chalcopyrite; then widespread base metal sulphides, lead-sulphosalts and zoned euhedral arsenical pyrite; and finally late network arsenical pyrite, massive and colloform arsenical pyrite, colloform sphalerite, coloradoite, and arsenic–antimony–mercury–thallium-bearing sulphides including orpiment, realgar, stibnite, getchellite, cinnabar, lorandite and a Tl-mineral, probably christite. Most of the gold at Zarshuran is detectable only by quantitative electron microprobe and bulk chemical analyses. Gold occurs mainly in arsenical pyrite and colloform sphalerite as solid solution or as nanometre-sized native gold. Metallic gold is found rarely in hydrothermal quartz and orpiment. Pure microcrystalline orpiment, carbon-rich shale, silicified shale with visible pyrite grains and arsenic minerals contain the highest concentrations of gold. In many ways Zarshuran appears to be similar to the classic Carlin-type sediment-hosted disseminated gold deposits. However, relatively high concentrations of tellurium at Zarshuran, evidenced by the occurrence of coloradoite (HgTe), imply a greater magmatic contribution in the mineralising hydrothermal solutions than is typical of Carlin-type gold deposits. Received: 13 May 1999 / Accepted: 2 February 2000     

Petrographic, mineralogy, and geochemistry of coals of Pabedana, Kerman Province, Central Iran

This paper discusses the result of the detailed investigations carried out on the coal characteristics, including coal petrography and its geochemistry of the Pabedana region. A total of 16 samples were collected from four coal seams d2, d4, d5, and d6 of the Pabedana underground mine which is located in the central part of the Central-East Iranian Microcontinent. These samples were reduced to four samples through composite sampling of each seam and were analyzed for their petrographic, mineralogical, and geochemical compositions. Proximate analysis data of the Pabedana coals indicate no major variations in the moisture, ash, volatile matter, and fixed carbon contents in the coals of different seams. Based on sulfur content, the Pabedana coals may be classified as low-sulfur coals. The low-sulfur contents in the Pabedana coal and relatively low proportion of pyritic sulfur suggest a possible fresh water environment during the deposition of the peat of the Pabedana coal. X-ray diffraction and petrographic analyses indicate the presence of pyrite in coal samples. The Pabedana coals have been classified as a high volatile, bituminous coal in accordance with the vitrinite reflectance values (58.75–74.32 %) and other rank parameters (carbon, calorific value, and volatile matter content). The maceral analysis and reflectance study suggest that the coals in all the four seams are of good quality with low maceral matter association. Mineralogical investigations indicate that the inorganic fraction in the Pabedana coal samples is dominated by carbonates; thus, constituting the major inorganic fraction of the coal samples. Illite, kaolinite, muscovite, quartz, feldspar, apatite, and hematite occur as minor or trace phases. The variation in major elements content is relatively narrow between different coal seams. Elements Sc,, Zr, Ga, Ge, La, As, W, Ce, Sb, Nb, Th, Pb, Se, Tl, Bi, Hg, Re, Li, Zn, Mo, and Ba show varying negative correlation with ash yield. These elements possibly have an organic affinity and may be present as primary biological concentrations either with tissues in living condition and/or through sorption and formation of organometallic compounds.     

Changes in geochemistry and mineralogy of thermally altered coal, Upper Hunter Valley, Australia

Igneous intrusions thermally and geochemically alter coal, commonly causing economic and safety problems for many coal mines. The effects of two dykes on the inorganic content of the Late Permian bituminous Upper Wynn seam were determined from analyses of 44 samples that were collected along transects approaching the intrusions. Petrographic and XRD data were used to determine sample mineralogy, and INAA and XRF spectrometry were utilised to determine the contents of 57 elements. The mineralogy of the unaltered coal, altered coal and dyke is dominated by carbonates, particularly dawsonite, which formed by epigenetic precipitation at a late stage, after thermal alteration. Ankerite and siderite are the products of thermal alteration and are restricted to the altered coal and dykes.Principal component analysis, correlations and compositional trends approaching the intrusions were used to subdivide the elements into groups and to identify the mineralogical affinity of each group. Geochemical data are more sensitive than mineralogy for defining the size of the alteration halo, and three zones ranging from unaltered coal, through altered coal to highly coked coal are recognised as each intrusion is approached.The alteration halos differ in extent (9.5 and 56 m wide), but their size is not a multiple of the size of the causative intrusion. At the contact between coal and intrusion, concentrations of elements with affinities to some aluminosilicates, oxides, carbonates, sulphides and organic components are enriched, while other aluminosilicate-related elements are depleted. In the altered coal towards the edge of the alteration halo, some aluminosilicate elements are enriched and oxide elements are depleted.     

Petrography,mineralogy and geochemistry of Cretaceous sediment samples from western Khorat Plateau,Thailand, and considerations on their provenance

At Mo Hin Khao on the western flank of Khorat Plateau, Thailand, the Phra Wihan Formation reveals litharenite and sublitharenite with some subarkose and arkose. A cuesta in the eroded sedimentary sequence exhibits spectacular rock pillars of considerable geotourist potential. The rock sequence is high in silica (SiO₂ 67–98 wt%) and contains quartz, mica, magnetite, chert fragments and accessory minerals such as zircon and tourmaline and amphibole species. These accessory minerals suggest felsic rocks, such as granite, granodiorite and pegmatite, were sources for the sandstones. Geochemical analyses of the sedimentary sequence suggest that source rocks may lie in the passive continental margin, before sediment transport and deposition in the Khorat Basin by rivers flowing across a large flood plain. Many depositional sequences/episodes formed thick beds of cross bedded clastic rocks. A high average maturity index (>5) indicates sedimentary reworking/recycling. Chemical Index of Alteration (CIA) values range from 47 to 98, suggesting variable chemical weathering within the source area rocks, largely representing moderate to high degrees of weathering. The average CIA value of these sediments (78) suggests that relatively extreme alteration factors were involved.     

沈北煤田煤炭地下气化初步探讨

主要阐述了沈北煤田煤炭地下气化原理、条件、煤炭气化开采依据,煤炭气化开采的发展远景及对国民经济发展的重要意义。     

Lawsonite- and glaucophane-bearing blueschists from NW Qiangtang,northern Tibet,China: mineralogy,geochemistry, geochronology,and tectonic implications

The occurrence of high-pressure (HP) blueschists within the central Qiangtang terrane of northern Tibet has a significant bearing on plate-suturing processes. In order to contribute to the ongoing debate on whether the central Qiangtang metamorphic belt represents an in situ suture within the Qiangtang terrane, we examined lawsonite- and glaucophane-bearing blueschists from the northwest Qiangtang area (84° 10′–85° 30′ E, 34°10′–34° 45′ N). All studied rocks are metapelites, metasandstones, or metabasalts, characterized by lawsonite + glaucophane + phengite, lawsonite + glaucophane + epidote + albite + quartz, or glaucophane + phengite + quartz assemblages. The meta-mafic rocks contain very high TiO₂ and low Al₂O₃ contents. They are typified by abundant ferromagnesian trace elements, and an absence of Eu anomalies and Nb–Ta deletions; all the above features indicate that these mafic rocks represent oceanic island basalt (OIB) protoliths. Most of the metasediments contain high SiO₂, moderate Al₂O₃ + K₂O, and low TiO₂ + Na₂O. They display high CIA (chemical index of alteration) values (74% ± 5%) and distinctly negative Eu anomalies (Eu/Eu* = 0.64 ± 0.05). This, along with their high field strength elemental characteristics, indicates that they were deposited in a passive continental margin environment, intercalated with OIB-type basalts. We estimate the peak metamorphic conditions for these blueschists as T = 330–415°C and P = 9–11.5 kbar. This HP event occurred at ca. 242 Ma, indicated by a well-defined ⁴⁰Ar/³⁹Ar plateau age for glaucophane. Retrograde metamorphism occurred at T = 280–370°C, P = 6.5–9.5 kbar, t = ca. 207 Ma (⁴⁰Ar/³⁹Ar dating of phengite). Therefore, a cold subduction (geotherm ～8°C/km) attended the passive continental margin during the Triassic when the eastern Qiangtang collided with the western Qiangtang. The northwest Qiangtang HP metamorphic belt is an extension of the central Qiangtang metamorphic belt that defines the suture between eastern and western Qiangtang, and indicates an anticlockwise, diachronous closure of the Shuanghu Palaeo-Tethys.     

Pallasite meteorites—mineralogy,petrology and geochemistry

Pallasites are highly differentiated meteorites and provide a unique sample from the deep interiors of solar system parent bodies. They contain evidence of the former existence of one or more residual melts. Olivine is a major phase. Its primary shape is rounded; the angular crystals in many pallasites are secondary. Tubular inclusions are widespread. They perhaps are the residence of CO₂, released during laboratory heating experiments. Phosphoran olivine, a new variety of olivine containing 4–5 wt% P₂O₅, occurs in a few pallasites. Its Fe/Mg ratio is apparently independent of the host olivine composition.Pyroxene (not previously described from pallasites) occurs in symplectic intergrowths in seven meteorites. Compositionally, it lies in the gap between pyroxenes in chondrites and most irons. There are two groups: Fs_{11.6 ± 0.2} and Fs_{16.7 ± 0.2} The pyroxene contains exceptionally low Ca (< 0.1–0.2 wt%) and there is an indication of an inverse relation between Fe and Ca.Modal analyses and density measurements were made on all available specimens and bulk compositions were calculated. The ‘average’ pallasite contains 65 vol. % olivine and 50.5 wt % total Fe. Many of the densities of pallasites cluster around that calculated for close-packed olivine.Pallasites are exotic cumulates. Their textures resemble terrestrial cumulates, as does the presence of olivine and chromite. The metal texture resembles a solidified intercumulus liquid. Those pallasites containing olivine in excess of close-packing were subjected to adcumulus growth, thereby also explaining the widespread mutual borders.There is abundant evidence of deformation. For olivines this includes their fragmental shape and kink banding. Troilite formed a eutectic-like melt with kamacite: pieces of spalled olivine and schreibersite were injected into and captured by this melt. Troilite polycrystallinity resulted from the deformation. This deformation occurred while the pallasites were still deeply buried, resulting in incipient spheroidization of olivine fragments, including the formation of elongate, rounded crystals. A later, lower temperature deformation disrupted plessite.Pallasites formed in multiple parent bodies by processes that recurred in several places within the solar system, as shown by the mineralogical and textural similarities between pallasites that differ in their isotopic and trace element compositions. Type IIIB irons still seem the most likely associated meteorites.Two new pallasites, Dora and Rawlinna, are described briefly.     

New insights into mineralogy and geochemistry of allanite-bearing Mediterranean coastal sands from Northern Greece

Allanite-bearing black coastal sands of Kavala (N. Greece) were studied using a combination of single-crystal XRD, EMPA, μ-XRF, bulk ICP-MS, LA-ICP-MS, μ-XANES and γ-ray spectrometry. The sands are rich in REE (ΣREE + Y: 4010 to 10,810 mg/kg), Th (236–1205 mg/kg) and other critical metals such as Nb, Ta and Co. The main REE- and Th-hosts are allanite and titanite. The allanite unit cell parameters were calculated whereas its formula was found to be (REE_0.470Ca_1.499Th_0.031) (Ti_0.031Fe⁺³_1.089Al_1.880) (Si_2.906Al_0.094O₁₂) (OH). The μ-XANES spectra showed that LREE are present in trivalent oxidation state. Analyses of the non-magnetic sand fractions showed higher LREE (12,470 mg/kg) due to accumulation of allanite. The materials showed elevated radioactivity ranging from 885 ± 13 to 3467 ± 20 Bq/kg. The obtained results provide new insights on the provenance of the sands, the abundance of REE, Th, and other immobile elements, and offer new clues for potential exploration and exploitation.     

安徽黄山花岗岩岩石学、矿物学及地球化学研究

安徽黄山复式岩体位于扬子板块东南缘,江南陆内造山带内。黄山复式岩体由太平花岗闪长岩岩体和黄山花岗岩岩体组成。根据岩体的接触关系和各期次岩石的矿物学及岩石学特征,可以将黄山花岗岩岩体分为4个期次：第一期为中粒二长花岗岩;第二期为粗粒似斑状花岗岩;第三期为中细粒斑状花岗岩;第四期为粗粒含斑花岗岩。从矿物的组成上来看,各期次的岩石均为广义的花岗岩类,主要矿物以石英和长石为主,太平岩体和黄山岩体中的斜长石均表现出钠长石的特点,同时黄山岩体特征的出现条纹长石。各期次岩体均含有少量的铁白云母,显示出过铝质的特点。各期次岩石总体具有高硅（SiO₂含量大于75%）、高碱（ALK含量大于7.9%）、低钙（CaO含量小于1%）及高FeO^T/MgO比值（13~37）的特点。同时岩石强烈富集稀土元素（除Eu出现明显的负异常）、Zr、Hf、Nb等高场强元素,贫Ba、Sr、Ni,高10000×Ga/Al（比值大于2.6）,这些特征均指示黄山复式岩体具有A型花岗岩的特点。通过Eby的判别图解将其进一步划分为A2型花岗岩,代表其形成于拉张的构造背景之下。结合Sm-Nd同位素特征（ε_Nd(t)= -4. 2 ~ -5.6）,确定黄山复式岩体的源区物质可能为一套元古宙的火山岩。同时稀土模拟结果表明,黄山岩体的原始岩浆是这种源区大约20%部分熔融的产物。岩体形成于斜向俯冲引发的陆内剪张环境内。     

Investigation on mineralogy,geochemistry and fluid inclusions of the Goushti hydrothermal magnetite deposit,Fars Province,SW Iran: A comparison with IOCGs

The Goushti iron deposit from Dehbid area located in the Sanandaj-Sirjan metamorphic Belt (SSB), SW Iran is hosted by the Early Mesozoic silicified dolomite. Mineralized zones are lithostructurally controlled and oriented NW-SE parallel to the Zagros Orogenic Belt (ZOB). Magnetite, the major ore mineral, occurs as open space fillings and is accompanied by the secondary mineral phases hematite, goethite and martite. Gangue minerals mainly include quartz, dolomite and K-feldspar are associated with minor hydrosilicates. Calc-silicates such as wollastonite and diopside, minerals typical of skarns, are virtually absent from the ore zones. Fe₂O₃ content in the mineralized zones varies in the range of 38–75 wt%. The concentrations of Au, Cu, P, Ti, Cr and V as well as Co/Ni, Cr/V, (LREE)/(HREE), Eu/Sm and La/Lu values and Eu-Ce anomalies of the studied ores indicate that the Goushti deposit is a hydrothermal magnetite type. The subvolcanic rhyolite and basalt in this area are regarded as the source of iron and heat in the mineralizing system. The fluid inclusion data showed that magnetite deposited from the ore-bearing fluid with salinities 1–7 wt% NaCl equivalent at temperatures of 130–200 °C. A decrease in temperature and pressure, supplemented by fluid mixing, is the major controlling factor in iron oxide precipitation. The field relationships and mineralogical–geochemical characteristics of iron ores indicate that the Goushti hydrothermal deposit could not be classified as a member of the IOCG (Iron Oxide-Copper-Gold) deposits.     

Sedimentology,mineralogy, and geochemistry of the Late Quaternary Meyghan Playa sediments,NE Arak,Iran: palaeoclimate implications

Playas are shallow ephemeral lakes that form in arid and semi-arid regions. Iran has a large number of playas such as Meyghan Playa, which is located in the northeast of Arak city that borders the central Iran and Sanandaj-Sirjan zones. This study aims to investigate the mineralogical, sedimentological, and geochemical characteristics of the playa sediments. In order to determine the palaeoenvironment, we carried out X-ray diffraction (XRD), X-ray fluorescence (XRF), and scanning electron microscopy (SEM) studies. Meyghan Playa sediments consist of very fine-grained sediments and contain both evaporite and clastic minerals. The evaporite minerals include calcite, gypsum, halite, glauberite, and thenardite, whereas clastic minerals are quartz and clay. The calcite abundance decreases from the margin to the central portion of the playa but gypsum and halite abundances show an increasing trend from the margin to the center. This observation is consistent with the general zonation of other playas. Variations of calcite and gypsum concentration profiles present increasing and decreasing trends with depth, which could be ascribed to the changes in climatic factors. These factors include brine chemical modifications owing to changes in evaporation and precipitation rates and variations in relative abundance of anions-cations or in the rate of clastic and evaporite minerals due to variations in the freshwater influx (climatic changes) with time. A decrease in calcite and increase in sulfate minerals (especially gypsum) with depth is probably due to the higher water level and rainfall, a more humid climate, and salinity variations.     

Chemical weathering in Luzon, Philippines from clay mineralogy and major-element geochemistry of river sediments

Clay mineralogy and major-element geochemistry of 35 surface sediment samples collected in 21 major to moderate rivers of Luzon, Philippines are used to evaluate the present chemical weathering process. The clay mineral assemblage consists mainly of smectite (average 86%) with minor kaolinite (9%) and chlorite (5%) and very scarce illite (1%), and does not show strong island-wide differences. The major element results of both bulk and clay-fraction sediments indicate that the formation of clay minerals is accompanied by leaching of Ca and Na first and of Fe and Mn thereafter during the chemical weathering process. A low-moderate chemical weathering degree of bulk sediments and a moderate-intensive degree of clay-fraction sediments are obtained in Luzon rivers based on proxies of chemical index of alteration (CIA) and smectite crystallinity. It is suggested that the majority of andesitic–basaltic volcanic and sedimentary rocks along with the tectonically active geological setting and sub-tropical East Asian monsoon climate are responsible for the predominance of smectite in the clay mineral assemblage.     

The mineralogy and geochemistry of the sediments of northwestern Lake Victoria

In the nearshore area of northwestern Lake Victoria a thin strip of quartzarenite sand occurs which grades lakeward into silty clay consisting of quartz with subordinate amounts of K-feldspar, plagioclase, kaolinite, illite, vermiculite and organic matter. Varimax matrix determinations of the element concentrations in the lake-bottom sediments extractable by aqua regia indicate that: (1) there is a strong association of Cr, Cu, Zn and Ni; (2) there is a strong association of Fe, Mn and Co; (3) Cu and Ni show moderate to slight associations with organic matter; (4) Ca is relatively independent of the other elements. The general decrease in the pH values of the surface and bottom waters outward from the lake shore, with consistently higher values for the surface water relative to the bottom waters, results from decreasing levels of photosynthetic activity.     

Postorogenic carbonatites at Eden Lake, Trans-Hudson Orogen (northern Manitoba, Canada): Geological setting, mineralogy and geochemistry

The Eden Lake pluton in the Trans-Hudson Orogen is the first known occurrence of carbonatites in Manitoba. The pluton is largely made up of modally and geochemically diverse syenitic rocks derived from postorogenic magma(s) of shoshonitic affinity. Their diversity can be accounted for by a combination of crystal fractionation and fluid release in the final evolutionary stage (crystallization of quartz alkali-feldspar syenite). At Eden Lake, carbonatites, represented predominantly by coarse-grained massive to foliated sövite, occur as branching veins and lenticular bodies up to 4 m in thickness showing crosscutting relations with respect to all of the syenitic units. The host rocks are intensely fenitized at the contact, and there is also abundant mineralogical and textural evidence for assimilation of silicate material by carbonatitic magma through wallrock reaction and xenolith fragmentation and digestion. The bulk of the carbonatites are composed of (in order of crystallization): Sr–REE-rich fluorapatite, aegirine–augite, and coarse calcite crystals surrounded by fine-grained calcite (on average,  90 vol.% of the rock). Noteworthy accessory constituents are celestine, bastnäsite-(Ce) (both as primary inclusions in calcite), Nb–Zr–rich titanite, low-Hf zircon, allanite-(Ce) and andradite. The calcite is chemically uniform (Sr-rich, Mg–Mn–Fe-poor and low in ¹³C), but shows clear evidence of ductile deformation and syndeformational cataclasis. Geochemically, the carbonatites are enriched in Sr, Ba, light rare-earth elements, Th and U, but depleted in high-field-strength elements (particularly, Ti, Nb and Ta). The stable-isotope composition of coarse- and fine-grained calcite from the carbonatites and interstitial calcite from syenites is remarkably uniform: ca. − 8.16 ± 0.27‰ δ¹³C (PDB) and + 8.04 ± 0.19‰ δ¹⁸O (SMOW). The available textural and geochemical evidence indicates that the Eden Lake carbonatites are not consanguineous with the associated syenites and may have been derived from a Nb–Ti-retentive and ¹³C-depleted source such as the subducted crustal material underlying the Eden Lake deformation corridor.     

Evaluation of climate change in northern Iran during the last four centuries by using dendroclimatology

Natural Hazards - Climate change is currently one of the most important environmental issues. Dendrochronology is frequently used to identify the climatic changes most closely associated with...     

Methane emission from coal and associated strata samples

Summary This article discusses methods for providing a reliable forecast of the gas-dynamic behaviour of coal seams and adjacent strata. It shows that the ash content of carbonaceous materials determines their sorptive capacity (a universally applicable expression is presented for calculating the methane content of a sample) whilst the rate of methane desorption is a function of the degree of geological disturbance, i.e. the number and distribution of the macropores and fractures in the sample. This effect becomes less important as the sample ash content increases and effectively disappears above a certain value for high permeability materials.The quantity sorption-kinetic characteristic is shown to be a reliable means for quantifying methane emission behaviour. Large variations in coal sorption-kinetic characteristics are shown to occur over short distances as the geological structure of the seam changes, both vertically and horizontally. Consequently, sorption-kinetic characteristics may be used to predict the general level of methane emission from the seam and to quantify the risk of outburst inherent in disturbed areas of coal seams.     

Assimilation and partial melting of continental crust: evidence from the mineralogy and geochemistry of autoliths and xenoliths

This paper presents a model for the partial melting of quartz diorite and greywacke in the upper crust based on the mineralogy and geochemistry of enclaves within the Loch Doon granitic intrusion of southern Scotland. The melting of quartz diorite was modelled using autoliths, which represent fragments of cogenetic igneous rocks that became incorporated in the fractionating magma. Compared to their quartz diorite parents, the autoliths are enriched to varying degrees in some elements (notably Rb, Nb, Ta, Sm, Y, Yb) and depleted in others (Sr, and Ba); Eu and P are also depleted in the more assimitated autoliths. The compositions of melts that could be derived from assimilation of the autoliths have also been calculated: their REE patterns reveal a light REE enrichment, low concentrations of heavy REEs (1–3 x chondrite) and a positive Eu anomaly. The calculated degrees of melting vary from 35% in the least assimilated to 84% in the most assimilated autolith (assuming a bulk distribution coefficient of 10 for the most compatible element). Results from modelling of xenolith compositions (derived from metasediments) are also reported, but because of uncertainties in the composition of the parental sediment, these data are subject to larger errors. They do, however, indicate that resultant partial melts are distinctly different from those derived by partial melting of autoliths. In particular, the REE pattern of a greywacke-derived melt shows a slight enrichment in light REEs, greater concentrations of heavy REEs (10 x chondrite) and a small negative Eu anomaly. The calculated degrees of melting of the xenoliths fall in the range of 66–88% (assuming a bulk distribution coefficient of 10 for the most compatible element). The results have direct implications for assimilation and melting of the upper crust. By taking into account how the nature of residual phases is likely to change with depth, it can be demonstrated that some Archaean tonalite gneisses could represent liquids derived by partial melting of igneous material.