Outstanding aeronomy problems at Venus

Of all the non-terrestrial ionospheres and thermospheres in our solar system those of Venus have been explored and studied the most. This is mainly because of the 14 year exploration of the well-instrumented Pioneer Venus spacecraft and the theoretical studies prompted by the resulting observational information. However, there are still a number of areas where there are important scientific questions that remain unanswered. These areas include:

• (i)dynamics of the thermosphere,
• (ii)the energy mechanisms/sources responsible for maintaining the elevated plasma temperatures in the ionosphere,
• (iii)airglow/aurora intensities and their sources, and
• (iv)hot atom populations.

Venus Express is likely to help address some of the questions related to the areas listed under (i), (iii) and (iv) above.     

On the relative and absolute ages of seven lunar front face basins: I. From Viscosity Arguments

The seven basins, Orientale, Imbrium, Crisium, Nectaris, Humorum, and an unnamed basin between Werner and the Altai Ring show rims whose absolute and relative heights are correlated with the sharpness and crispness of the features. On the assumption that the decline in average outer rim height, not scarp height, measures the age of the basin and also that the decline represents a hot creep of rocks of very high viscosity, absolute ages were derived. Basins were found to increase in age in the sequence listed above, with a range from about 3.82 to 4.30 × 10⁹ years. The average or effective viscosity of the surface layers down to whatever level was involved in the creep was calculated as increasing from 9.46 × 10²⁴ poises at about 4.30 × 10⁹ years to 1.86 × 10³⁰ poises at present.It should be clear at the outset what the assumptions and associated observations are and why they are necessary to a solution. They will be listed in this abstract and expanded upon in the text.

• 1.(1)The original rim height of each basin was a function only of basin diameter.
• 2.(2)The original rim height was given by Pike's (1983) relation for fresh craters extrapolated to basin diameters.
• 3.(3)The present rim height is that of the most prominent ring structure.
• 4.(4)The smaller rim height of all seven basins, relative to the height predicted by (2) is due largely to creep in the lunar rocks down to some undetermined level. Other forces may contribute to the sinking of the rims, but these are considered to be of lesser importance and are discussed in the text.
• 5.(5)The relative ages of the seven basins are as given in Table I. This sequence differs slightly from that of Wilhelms (1984), for example, but it is that found in Baldwin, 1974, Baldwin, 1987 and is consistent with the results of this paper.
• 6.(6)The age of formation of the Imbrium basin (3.85 × 10⁹ years) inferred from lunar sample studies (particularly Apollo 15) is correct.
• 7.(7)The age of formation of the Serenitatis basin (3.87 +/− .04) × 10⁹ years, inferred from petrologic and geochemical studies of Apollo 17 boulders is incorrect. This is not an assumption, but is a result of the analysis of this paper.
• 8.(8)The rheology of the Moon may be described, for the purposes of this paper, by an effective viscosity valid throughout the layers involved in the creep.
• 9.(9)This effective viscosity is used as a tool to determine basin ages and is not important in itself. It does appear to vary in the same range as terrestrial rocks, but not the lithosphere.
• 10.(10)Other factors such as isostasy, shaking due to jar from later impacts, modification due to rim relief by ejecta, and erosion from small impacts are all close to exponential in nature, declining toward the present, and hence may be included in the determination of the effective viscosity.
• 11.(11)The rim height of the Imbrium basin subsided by 25 m in the last 2.5 × 10⁹ years. This value was chosen arbitrarily. It could have been 250–300 m and the basin ages would not have been affected except for Orientale and that only minutely.
• 12.(12)The effective viscosity of the Moon was observed to change continuously and monotonically with time.
• 13.(13)Judging by Table III, the probable error of an absolute age is in the range of 10 to 50 × 10⁶ years. It is difficult to determine exactly what this means. It will be constrained by points (14), (15), and (16).
• 14.(14)An error in the age determination should not be large enough to alter the relative ages of the basins, judging by crater counts (Baldwin, 1974, Baldwin, 1987).
• 15.(15)If the viscosity of the Moon declined in the post-Imbrium period of mare formation the only basin to be affected would be Orientale and this by no great amount inasmuch as the basin is older than nearby maria.
• 16.(16)If the effective viscosity were less than about 10²² poises at the time of the oldest basin then presaturation surfaces would not show the numerous craters and portions of craters that are obvious in this time span.
• 17.(17)Considerably prior to the time of saturation the outer layers of the Moon had a low enough viscosity so that they could not retain the record of the then occuring cratering.
• 18.(18)The approximations of this paper were adopted because it does not appear possible to make an unambiguous selection from the more elegant mathematical treatments of creep and isostasy that would lead toward reasonable ages for the giant basins.

     

Physical parameters of the Jovian atmosphere

The following physical parameters have been computed for the Jovian atmosphere between 270 and ?300 km: (1) Pressure, (2) Density, (3) Speed and sound, (4) Number density, (5) Density scale. It has considered that the top of the clouds is at 0 km. For the calculations of these parameters we have used:

1. for the altitudes 270-0 km data from Voyager I and II.
2. for the altitudes ?300–0 km data from Voyager II and spectroscopic observations.

     

Motions and magnetic fields in filaments

Based on the developed method of jointly using data on the magnetic fields and brightness of filaments and coronal holes (CHs) at various heights in the solar atmosphere as well as on the velocities in the photosphere, we have obtained the following results:

The upward motion of matter is typical of filament channels in the form of bright stripes that often surround the filaments when observed in the HeI 1083 nm line.

The filament channels observed simultaneously in Hα and HeI 1083 nm differ in size, emission characteristics, and other parameters. We conclude that by simultaneously investigating the filament channels in two spectral ranges, we can make progress in understanding the physics of their formation and evolution.

Most of the filaments observed in the HeI 1083 nm line consist of dark knots with different velocity distributions in them. A possible interpretation of these knots is offered.

The height of the small-scale magnetic field distribution near the individual dark knots of filaments in the solar atmosphere varies between 3000 and 20000 km.

The zero surface separating the large-scale magnetic field structures in the corona and calculated in the potential approximation changes the inclination to the solar surface with height and is displaced in one or two days.

The observed formation of a filament in a CH was accompanied by a significant magnetic field variation in the CH region at heights from 0 to 30000 km up to the change of the predominant field sign over the entire CH area. We assume that this occurs at the stage of CH disappearance.

     

Chromospheric inhomogeneities in sunspot umbrae

The properties of rapidly changing inhomogeneities visible in the H and K lines above sunspot umbrae are described. We find as properties for these ‘Umbral Flashes’:

1. A lifetime of 50 sec. The light curve is asymmetrical, the increase is faster than the decrease in brightness.
2. A diameter ranging from the resolution limit up to 2000 km.
3. A tendency to repeat every 145 sec.
4. A ‘proper motion’ of 40 km/sec generally directed towards the penumbra.
5. A Doppler shift of 6 km/sec.
6. A magnetic field of 2100 G.
7. A decrease in this field of 12 G/sec. This decrease is probably related to the flash motion.
8. At any instant an average of 3–5 flashes in a medium-sized umbra. A weak feature often persists in the umbra after the flash. This post-flash structure initially shows a blue shift, but 100–120 sec after the flash, it shows a rapid red shift just before the flash repeats.

     

Spectral analysis of four quiescent prominences observed at the Peruvian eclipse

Two-dimensional distributions of kinetic temperature, density and turbulent velocity are obtained for four quiescent prominences observed at the Peruvian eclipse of 12 November, 1966.

1. The kinetic temperature derived from line widths is around 6000–7000 K in the central part of prominences and rises to 12000K in both edges and possibly in the top of prominences.
2. The turbulent velocity shows a similar tendency, being 7–9 km/sec in the central part and ≈ 20 km/sec in the outer part. The turbulent velocity also increases slowly towards higher heights in the prominence.
3. The electron density derived both from the Stark effect and the intensity ratio of the continuous spectra turns out to be about 10^10.2–10^10.6 cm^?3 in the central portion of two prominences.
4. From the width and the intensity, neutral helium lines are shown to originate in the same region as hydrogen and metallic lines where the kinetic temperature goes down to 6000 K. This indicates that neutral helium is emitted after the ionization due to UV radiation from the corona and the transition region.

     

Space and time variations of the solar Na D line profiles

Preliminary results are presented of observations of the solar Na D lines obtained with high space and time resolution (2.4″ × 2.4″), (6 s). The following conclusions may be drawn.

1. The line profiles vary strongly with space and time implying that time averaging over a long period and large area will not produce the ‘true’ profile.
2. The centre-limb increase in apparent Doppler width in the D lines is intrinsic. It is not due to space or time averaging.
3. The amplitude of the 300-s oscillation may range up to 1.5 km/s in the region of formation of the D lines. Large line asymmetries are associated with this motion. Observations which do not resolve this motion can not be considered adequate.
4. The variation of the D line profile caused by the 300-s oscillation may be described as follows: (a) The core is raised and lowered without change of shape, (b) The wings broaden as the central intensity rises and narrow as it falls. These variations are qualitatively explained by the scanning of the line formation region through the solar atmosphere.
5. Doppler width values derived from pairs of D line profiles are strongly correlated with the motion of the element observed. Hotter elements move upward, cooler downward.
6. Indications of running waves have been found in the time variation of the core line bisectors.

The profile variations observed provide a framework in which various properties of the centre limb variation of these lines may be considered. In particular they show that any expectation of accuracy in profile coincidence above a certain value must be doomed by the intrinsic variability of the solar atmosphere.     

Dynamical properties of the Venus mesosphere from the radio-occultation experiment VeRa onboard Venus Express

The dynamics of Venus’ mesosphere (60–100 km altitude) was investigated using data acquired by the radio-occultation experiment VeRa on board Venus Express. VeRa provides vertical profiles of density, temperature and pressure between 40 and 90 km of altitude with a vertical resolution of few hundred meters of both the Northern and Southern hemisphere. Pressure and temperature vertical profiles were used to derive zonal winds by applying an approximation of the Navier–Stokes equation, the cyclostrophic balance, which applies well on slowly rotating planets with fast zonal winds, like Venus and Titan. The main features of the retrieved winds are a midlatitude jet with a maximum speed up to 140 ± 15 m s^?1 which extends between 20°S and 50°S latitude at 70 km altitude and a decrease of wind speed with increasing height above the jet. Cyclostrophic winds show satisfactory agreement with the cloud-tracked winds derived from the Venus Monitoring Camera (VMC/VEx) UV images, although a disagreement is observed at the equator and near the pole due to the breakdown of the cyclostrophic approximation. Knowledge of both temperature and wind fields allowed us to study the stability of the atmosphere with respect to convection and turbulence. The Richardson number Ri was evaluated from zonal field of measured temperatures and thermal winds. The atmosphere is characterised by a low value of Richardson number from ～45 km up to ～60 km altitude at all latitudes that corresponds to the lower and middle cloud layer indicating an almost adiabatic atmosphere. A high value of Richardson number was found in the region of the midlatitude jet indicating a highly stable atmosphere. The necessary condition for barotropic instability was verified: it is satisfied on the poleward side of the midlatitude jet, indicating the possible presence of wave instability.     

First ever in situ observations of Venus’ polar upper atmosphere density using the tracking data of the Venus Express Atmospheric Drag Experiment (VExADE)

On its highly elliptical 24 h orbit around Venus, the Venus Express (VEX) spacecraft briefly reaches a periapsis altitude of nominally 250 km. Recently, however, dedicated and intense radio tracking campaigns have taken place in August 2008, October 2009, February and April 2010, for which the periapsis altitude was lowered to the 186–176 km altitude range in order to be able to probe the upper atmosphere of Venus above the North Pole for the first time ever in situ. As the spacecraft experiences atmospheric drag, its trajectory is measurably perturbed during the periapsis pass, allowing us to infer total atmospheric mass density at the periapsis altitude. A Precise Orbit Determination (POD) of the VEX motion is performed through an iterative least-squares fitting process to the Doppler tracking data, acquired by the VEX radioscience experiment (VeRa). The drag acceleration is modelled using an initial atmospheric density model (VTS3 model, Hedin, A.E., Niemann, H.B., Kasprzak, W.T., Seiff, A. [1983]. J. Geophys. Res. 88, 73–83). A scale factor of the drag acceleration is estimated for each periapsis pass, which scales Hedin’s density model in order to best fit the radio tracking data. Reliable density scale factors have been obtained for 10 passes mainly from the second (October 2009) and third (April 2010) VExADE campaigns, which indicate a lower density by a factor of about 1.8 than Hedin’s model predicts. These first ever in situ polar density measurements at solar minimum have allowed us to construct a diffusive equilibrium density model for Venus’ thermosphere, constrained in the lower thermosphere primarily by SPICAV-SOIR measurements and above 175 km by the VExADE drag measurements (Müller-Wodarg et al., in preparation). The preliminary results of the VExADE campaigns show that it is possible to obtain with the POD technique reliable estimates of Venus’ upper atmosphere densities at an altitude of around 175 km. Future VExADE campaigns will benefit from the planned further lowering of VEX pericenter altitude to below 170 km.     

Orbital eccentricity study for the spherical component of our galaxy

An analysis of the data concerning high-velocity stars from Eggen's catalogue aimed at a determination of the approximate slope of the mass function for the spherical component of our Galaxy, and at estimating the local circular velocity, as well as the local rotation velocity, as by-products, has been performed. Our conclusions are that:

1. A linear dependence of the mass on the radius is very likely;
2. the value of the limiting radius is most likely equal to (40±10) kpc;
3. the two local velocities are approximately equal to each other, being both equal to (230±30) km s^?1;
4. the local escape velocity appears to be most likely equal to (520±30) km s^?1;
5. the total mass of a corona, obtained in this way, is (5±1)×10¹¹ M _⊙.

     

Systematics of Dwarf Novae

From about 30 Dwarf Novae with the best determined distances the following relationships are found.

1. a tight correlation between absolute magnitude at maximum light, M_v(max), and orbital period, P.
2. a correlation between M_v(min) and P showing wide scatter.
3. a correlation between M_v(mean), the mean absolute magnitude averaged over normal outbursts, and P, again with wide scatter. The scatter is shown to correlate strongly with ouburst timescale T_n.
4. a strong correlation between range, M_v(min)-M_v(max), and T_n (the Kukarkin-Parenago relationship).
5. a strong correlation between range M_v(mean)-M_v(max), and both T_n and P.

This final correlation is interpreted in terms of the disc instability model of dwarf novae and successfully predicts the observed width of outburst versus P relationship.     

The chemical evolution of the solar neighbourhood: the effect of binaries

In this paper we compute the time evolution of the elements (⁴He, ¹²C, ¹⁴N, ¹⁶O, ²⁰Ne, ²⁴Mg, ²⁸Si, ³²S, ⁴⁰Ca and ⁵⁶Fe) and of the supernova rates in the solar neighbourhood by means of a galactic chemical evolutionary code that includes in detail the evolution of both single and binary stars. Special attention is payed to the formation of black holes.Our main conclusions:

• •in order to predict the galactic time evolution of the different types of supernovae, it is essential to compute in detail the evolution of the binary population,
• •the observed time evolution of carbon is better reproduced by a galactic model where the effect is included of a significant fraction of intermediate mass binaries,
• •massive binary mass exchange provides a possible solution for the production of primary nitrogen during the very early phases of galactic evolution,
• •chemical evolutionary models with binaries or without binaries but with a detailed treatment of the SN Ia progenitors predict very similar age–metallicity relations and very similar G-dwarf distributions whereas the evolution of the yields as function of time of the elements ⁴He, ¹⁶O, ²⁰Ne, ²⁴Mg, ²⁸Si, ³²S and ⁴⁰Ca differ by no more than a factor of two or three,
• •the observed time evolution of oxygen is best reproduced when most of the oxygen produced during core helium burning in ALL massive stars serves to enrich the interstellar medium. This can be used as indirect evidence that (massive) black hole formation in single stars and binary components is always preceded by a supernova explosion.

     

Effects of temperature and velocity gradients on doppler widths

We have investigated how the gradients of temperature and expansion velocities will change the emergent profiles from an extended medium in spherical symmetry. Variation of the source function and expansion velocities are assumed. The following variations of temperature are employed:

1. T(r) ; T₀ (isothermal case)
2. T(r) ; T₀(r/r₀)^1/2
3. T(r) ; T₀(r/r₀)^-1
4. T(r) ; T₀(r/r₀)^-2
5. T(r) ; T₀(r/r₀)^-3

The profiles calculated present an interesting feature of broadening.     

Small-scale temperature fluctuations seen by the VeRa Radio Science Experiment on Venus Express

The Venus Express Radio Science Experiment VeRa retrieves atmospheric profiles in the mesosphere and troposphere of Venus in the approximate altitude range of 40–90 km. A data set of more than 500 profiles was retrieved between the orbit insertion of Venus Express in 2006 and the end of occultation season No. 11 in July 2011. The atmospheric profiles cover a wide range of latitudes and local times, enabling us to study the dependence of vertical small-scale temperature perturbations on local time and latitude.Temperature fluctuations with vertical wavelengths of 4 km or less are extracted from the measured temperature profiles in order to study small-scale gravity waves. Significant wave amplitudes are found in the stable atmosphere above the tropopause at roughly 60 km as compared with the only shallow temperature perturbations in the nearly adiabatic region of the adjacent middle cloud layer, below.Gravity wave activity shows a strong latitudinal dependence with the smallest wave amplitudes located in the low-latitude range, and an increase of wave activity with increasing latitude in both hemispheres; the greatest wave activity is found in the high-northern latitude range in the vicinity of Ishtar Terra, the highest topographical feature on Venus.We find evidence for a local time dependence of gravity wave activity in the low latitude range within ±30° of the equator. Gravity wave amplitudes are at their maximum beginning at noon and continuing into the early afternoon, indicating that convection in the lower atmosphere is a possible wave source.The comparison of the measured vertical wave structures with standard linear-wave theory allows us to derive rough estimates of the wave intrinsic frequency and horizontal wavelengths, assuming that the observed wave structures are the result of pure internal gravity waves. Horizontal wavelengths of the waves at 65 km altitude are on the order of ≈300–450 km with horizontal phase speeds of roughly 5–10 m/s.     

Observations of moving magnetic features near sunspots

The properties of small (< 2″) moving magnetic features near certain sunspots are studied with several time series of longitudinal magnetograms and Hα filtergrams. We find that the moving magnetic features:

1. Are associated only with decaying sunspots surrounded entirely or in part by a zone without a permanent vertical magnetic field.
2. Appear first at or slightly beyond the outer edge of the parent sunspot regardless of the presence or absence of a penumbra.
3. Move approximately radially outward from sunspots at about 1 km s^?1 until they vanish or reach the network.
4. Appear with both magnetic polarities from sunspots of single polarities but appear with a net flux of the same sign as the parent sunspot.
5. Transport net flux away from the parent sunspots at the same rates as the flux decay of the sunspots.
6. Tend to appear in opposite polarity pairs.
7. Appear to carry a total flux away from sunspots several times larger than the total flux of the sunspots.
8. Produce only a very faint emmission in the core of Hα.

A model to help understand the observations is proposed.     

The photospheric network

Spectroheliograms, obtained in certain Fraunhofer lines with the 82-cm solar image at the Kitt Peak National Observatory, show a bright photospheric network having the following properties:

1. It resembles, but does not coincide with, the chromospheric network, the structure of the photospheric network being finer and more delicate than the relatively coarse structure of the chromospheric network.
2. It is exactly cospatial with the network of non-sunspot photospheric magnetic fields.
3. Its visibility in a given photospheric Fraunhofer line is primarily dependent on the states of ionization and excitation from which the line is formed and secondarily dependent on the Zeemansensitivity of the line-being most visible in low-excitation lines of neutral atoms and least visible in high-excitation lines of singly ionized atoms.

We conclude that these magnetic regions of the solar atmosphere are a few hundred degrees hotter than their surroundings, and that they are visible in white light near the limb as photospheric faculae.     

Flares and changing magnetic fields

An observational study of maps of the longitudinal component of the photospheric fields in flaring active regions leads to the following conclusions:

1. The broad-wing Hα kernels characteristic of the impulsive phase of flares occur within 10″ of neutral lines encircling features of isolated magnetic polarity (‘satellite sunspots’).
2. Photospheric field changes intimately associated with several importance 1 flares and one importance 2B flare are confined to satellite sunspots, which are small (10″ diam). They often correspond to spot pores in white-light photographs.
3. The field at these features appears to strengthen in the half hour just before the flares. During the flares the growth is reversed, the field drops and then recovers to its previous level.
4. The magnetic flux through flare-associated features changes by about 4 × 10¹⁹ Mx in a day. The features are the same as the ‘Structures Magnétiques Evolutives’ of Martres et al. (1968a).
5. An upper limit of 10²¹ Mx is set for the total flux change through McMath Regions 10381 and 10385 as the result of the 2B flare of 24 October, 1969.
6. Large spots in the regions investigated did not evince flux changes or large proper motions at flare time.
7. The results are taken to imply that the initial instability of a flare occurs at a neutral point, but the magnetic energy lost cannot yet be related to the total energy of the subsequent flare.
8. No unusual velocities are observed in the photosphere at flare time.

     

Keynote address: Outstanding problems in solar physics

Celebrating the diamond jubilee of the Physics Research Laboratory (PRL) in Ahmedabad, India, we look back over the last six decades in solar physics and contemplate on the ten outstanding problems (or research foci) in solar physics:

1. The solar neutrino problem
2. Structure of the solar interior (helioseismology)
3. The solar magnetic field (dynamo, solar cycle, corona)
4. Hydrodynamics of coronal loops
5. MHD oscillations and waves (coronal seismology)
6. The coronal heating problem
7. Self-organized criticality (from nanoflares to giant flares)
8. Magnetic reconnection processes
9. Particle acceleration processes
10. Coronal mass ejections and coronal dimming

The first two problems have been largely solved recently, while the other eight selected problems are still pending a final solution, and thus remain persistent Challenges for Solar Cycle 24, the theme of this jubilee conference.