Review of constitutive models for describing the time dependent behaviour of soft clays

Different classes of constitutive models have been proposed to capture the time-dependent behaviour of soft soil (creep, stress relaxation, rate dependency). This paper critically reviews many of the models developed based on understanding of the time dependent stress-strain-stress rate-strain rate behaviour of soils and viscoplasticity in terms of their strengths and weaknesses. Some discussion is also made on the numerical implementation aspects of these models. Typical findings from numerical analyses of geotechnical structures constructed on soft soils are also discussed. The general elastic viscoplastic (EVP) models can roughly be divided into two categories: models based on the concept of overstress and models based on non-stationary flow surface theory. Although general in structure, both categories have their own strengths and shortcomings. This review indicates that EVP analysis is yet to be vastly used by the geotechnical engineers, apparently due to the mathematical complication involved in the formulation of the constitutive models, unconvincing benefit in terms of the accuracy of performance prediction, requirement of additional soil parameter(s), difficulties in determining them, and the necessity of excessive computing resources and time.     

Finite element analysis of consolidation of layered clay soils using an elastic visco-plastic model

This paper presents a general one-dimensional (1-D) finite element (FE) procedure for a highly non-linear 1-D elastic visco-plastic (1-D EVP) model proposed by Yin and Graham for consolidation analysis of layered clay soils. In formulating the 1-D FE procedure, a trapezoidal formula is used to avoid the unsymmetry of the stiffness matrix for a Newton (modified Newton) iteration scheme. Unlike many other 1-D FE approaches in which the initial in situ stresses (or stress/strain states) are considered indirectly or even not considered, the initial in situ stress/strain states are taken into account directly in this paper. The proposed FE procedure is used for analysis of 1-D consolidation of a clay with published test results in the literature. The FE modelling results are in good agreement with the measured results. The FE model and procedure is then used to analyse the consolidation of a multi-layered clay soils with a parametric study on the effects of the variations of creep parameters in Yin and Graham's 1-D EVP model. It is found that the creep parameters ψ/V and t₀ have significant influence on the compression and porewater pressure dissipation. For some boundary conditions, changes of parameters in one layer will have some effects on the consolidation behaviour of another layer due to the different consolidation rates. Finally, the importance of initial stress/strain states is illustrated and discussed. Copyright © 1999 John Wiley & Sons, Ltd.     

Numerical analysis of foundation columns to support widening of embankments

Increased traffic volume has made it necessary to increase highway capacities by widening embankments and pavements. Adding a new embankment to an existing embankment induces additional stresses and deformations beneath the widened and existing portions of the embankment. Differential settlement may develop between and within the new and existing portions of the embankment, especially over soft soils. This differential settlement often causes pavement distress, such as longitudinal cracks or the drop-off (or sinking) of pavement sections. Different techniques have been adopted to remedy these problems, including the use of foundation columns, such as deep mixed columns, vibro-concrete columns, stone columns, and aggregate piers. However, design procedures for foundation columns constructed for this purpose are not well developed. The analyses of eight cases of column-supported widened embankments and two untreated foundations are presented in this paper. The factors considered include the consolidation of foundation soils under existing embankments and the spacing, region, and modulus of foundation columns. Two-dimensional finite difference software was used after the calibration of the model against a field case study and numerical analyses were conducted to investigate stresses and deformations of the widened embankments over soft soil with or without the remediation of foundation columns. The results presented in this paper include the vertical and the horizontal displacements, the maximum settlements, the transverse gradient change, and the distribution of the additional stresses induced by the widening. Recommendations are made for the design of foundation columns to remedy roadway pavement failure due to widening of embankments.     

Numerical prediction of the creep behaviour of an unstabilised and a chemically stabilised soft soil

This paper examines the ability of volumetric and deviatoric creep laws associated with constitutive models to simulate the creep behaviour of a soft soil in its natural state or chemically stabilised state. Initially, the models/laws are validated by oedometer and triaxial creep tests, for the stabilised and unstabilised soils. Finally, the long-term behaviour of an embankment built on a soft soil reinforced with deep mixing columns is predicted based on the properties for a curing time of 28 days. The results show that the creep phenomenon should be considered in a long-term analysis of deep mixing columns.     

预压作用下软土微观结构试验及弹黏塑性模型研究

为了揭示软土固结蠕变机制,计算软基“工后沉降”,开展了室内模拟真空、堆载以及真空-堆载联合预压加固软土的固结蠕变三轴试验及三轴试验前、后的微观结构试验。建立了能考虑微观结构改变的弹黏塑性(EVP)软土蠕变模型。研究结果表明：原状软土样在真空预压、堆载预压、联合预压3种预压荷载作用下,固结过程和蠕变过程具有耦合效应;土体微观结构参数的改变与宏观工程性质的改变具有相辅相成的关系;EVP模型弱化了具体应力路径的变化,其反映弹性的参数和反映黏塑性的参数可由微观结构参数确定;改进的EVP模型既能计算土体的弹黏塑性变形,也考虑了土体微观结构的变化,能更全面地反映土变形的实质。     

软岩填料的长期沉降变形特性及分析

通过现场试验路堤和室内模型试验研究了几种较有代表性的软岩填石料的长期沉降变形特性,证明了软岩填石料的长期变形性能除了与填石料的岩石特性和压实密度有关外,风化程度、干湿循环是影响填石料的长期变形性能的主要因素。     

Numerical modelling of the effect of curing time on the creep behaviour of a chemically stabilised soft soil

This work studies the effect of the curing time on the creep behaviour of a stabilised soft soil, using volumetric and deviatoric creep laws associated with constitutive models. Results of unconfined compressive strength tests for several curing times are used to define the time evolution of the mechanical and creep properties. The models/creep laws are validated by oedometer and triaxial creep tests, for 28 and 90 days of curing. The long-term behaviour of an embankment built on a soft soil reinforced with deep mixing columns shows that the effect of curing time decreases the settlement and increases the improvement factor.     

机车荷载作用下青藏铁路多年冻土区普通路基的蠕变分析

基于青藏铁路北麓河试验段的机车现场实时振动监测,在三轴流变试验的基础上,利用ABAQUS有限元软件中的时间硬化与Druker－Prager屈服破坏准则耦合的蠕变模型,对青藏铁路多年冻土区的普通素土路基在等效机车荷载作用下的蠕变效应进行分析。研究表明,ABAQUS软件中时间硬化与蠕变模型能较好地模拟路基运营过程中的时间效应,素土路基的竖向位移由路基顶部中心位置向路基内部和两侧逐渐减小,一年中的最大位移达14 mm,与该段的年沉降变形观测值一致。路基中心的蠕变应变值大于路基顶面和天然地表的应变值,路基中心受机车荷载的振动影响最大     

Performance of reinforced,DMM column-supported embankment considering reinforcement viscosity and subsoil’s decreasing hydraulic conductivity

It has been widely accepted that reinforcement made of polyethylene and polypropylene is susceptible to creep and soil’s hydraulic conductivity varies with its void ratio. However, unfortunately there is no available sensitivity analysis on time-dependent embankment behaviour taking either reinforcement viscosity or time varying hydraulic conductivity of subsoil into consideration. The influence of geosynthetic reinforcement viscosity and decreasing hydraulic conductivity with consolidation on the time-dependent performance of embankments with floating columns is investigated using a fully 3D coupled model. For an embankment at the working height corresponding to a post-consolidation polypropylene geotextile strain of about 5%, it is shown that the assumption of constant hydraulic conductivity and the failure to consider the viscous behaviour of geosynthetic reinforcement can underestimate time-dependent embankment deformations (including differential crest settlement and horizontal toe movement). The effects of factors including the foundation soil, reinforcement stiffness, column stiffness, column spacing, column type (floating and fully penetrating), and construction rate, on the time-dependent behaviour of column supported embankments are explored.     

A combined method to predict the long-term settlements of roads on soft soil under cyclic traffic loadings

In order to investigate the mechanism of the long-term settlement of road on the soft soil, an in situ measurement of a highway in southeast China was conducted during both the construction and post-construction stage. In the theoretical analysis, the long-term settlement of the pavement on thick soft soils was divided into three main components: the consolidation settlement, the creep deformation and the traffic load-induced deformation. The equivalent time line model based on the viscous–elastic–plastic theory was adopted to simulate the road settlement caused by the consolidation and creep of the subsoil. A cyclic strain accumulation model, which was obtained from laboratory tests of soil elements, was adopted to consider the road settlement induced by cyclic traffic loadings. A pavement dynamic response model was used to calculate the dynamic stresses in the subsoil generated by moving traffic loads when the road was open to service. It was found that the equivalent time line model combined with the cyclic strain accumulation model could predict the road settlement accurately at both the construction and post-construction stage. Numerical results showed that the traffic speed had limited effect on the post-construction road settlements for the speed range considered. The post-construction settlement of the road, mainly composed of the traffic-induced settlement and soil creep deformation, could be reduced significantly by increasing the embankment surcharge during the construction stage. The creep component accounted for over 10% of the total post-construction settlement, while the percentage of the creep deformation in total post-construction settlement decreased rapidly as the embankment surcharge increased.     

三角形周期荷载作用下软基路堤沉降研究

采用能够同时考虑主次固结变形的Yin-Graham一维弹黏塑性模型,对三角形周期荷载作用下软土路堤运行期间和运行期结束时的长期沉降进行了理论分析,获得三角形周期荷载作用下软基路堤运行期结束时的总沉降计算公式和工后沉降计算公式。分析了三角形周期荷载作用下软基不考虑流固耦合与考虑流固耦合时长期沉降之间的相互关系,证明了三角形周期荷载作用下当循环荷载次数趋向于无穷大时软基具有最终沉降量与应力随时间增长的模式无关的性质。按照文中提供的总沉降计算公式,针对具体工程的土工参数,对路堤运行期结束时的总沉降量进行了计算,并由此确定运行期开始时软基应发生的沉降量,为合理确定高速公路路面铺筑时机提供沉降标准。     

水泥土桩加固海洋土的渐进变形破坏试验与数值分析

应用一个高度非线性的三维各向异性粘弹塑性(EVP)模型及有限元法,对一水泥土桩(CDM)加固海洋土的复合地基进行数值模拟。海洋软粘土的渐进变形采用粘弹塑性模型来模拟,水泥土桩破坏前后的应力-应变关系采用一个双曲线模型来模拟,提出了一个简单且非常实用的数值分析方法来解决水泥土桩碎裂软化的数值模拟问题。将数值模拟结果与实测数据进行了比较,二者吻合较好。     

考虑软土流变特性的沉降预测模型研究

增长曲线模型自身的特点决定了其能很好地预测地基沉降的发展趋势。先将该模型推广到多级填土荷载下的路堤沉降预测中,接着基于绝对时间坐标系下的软土次压缩计算式,提出了带软土流变项的新型增长曲线模型,并采用数学中的最优化技术,结合前期沉降实测资料对模型中待定参数进行反演。实例计算表明：该模型对沉降预测精度高,能合理地反映出土颗粒骨架的蠕变过程,且能较准确地给出不同时刻的次压缩量,具有一定的工程参考价值。     

Identifying parameters controlling soil delayed behaviour from laboratory and in situ pressuremeter testing

The aim of this paper is to present a methodology for identifying the soil parameters controlling the delayed behaviour from laboratory and in situ pressuremeter tests by using an elasto‐viscoplastic model (EVP‐MCC) based on Perzyna's overstress theory and on the elasto‐plastic Modified Cam Clay model. The influence of both the model parameters and the soil permeability was studied under the loading condition of pressuremeter tests by coupling the proposed model equations with Biot's consolidation theory. On the basis of the parametric study, a methodology for identifying model parameters and soil permeability by inverse analysis from three levels of constant strain rate pressuremeter tests was then proposed and applied on tests performed on natural Saint‐Herblain clay. The methodology was validated by comparing the optimized values of soil parameters and the values of the same parameters obtained from laboratory test results, and also by using the identified parameters to simulate other tests on the same samples. The analysis of the drainage condition and the strain rate effect during a pressuremeter test demonstrated the coupled influence of consolidation and viscous effects on the test results. The numerical results also showed that the inverse analysis procedure could successfully determine the parameters controlling the time‐dependent soil behaviour. Copyright © 2008 John Wiley & Sons, Ltd.     

硅藻质软岩的三维弹粘塑性模型分析

基于Perzyna的弹粘塑性理论的基本假设、粘塑性流动法则及殷建华和Graham的三维弹粘塑性模型,得出了在三轴应力状态下的本构关系表达式。殷建华和Graham的模型提出了“等效时间”,“瞬时时间线”,“参考时间线”,“极限时间线”等一系列新的概念。用三轴应力状态下的本构关系表达式对软岩的固结不排水三轴剪切试验进行了模拟计算,并与试验结果进行了比较。结果表明：数值模拟计算结果与试验结果几乎一致。该模型简单、实用、精度较高,可以模拟硅藻质软岩材料与时间有关的应力-应变关系、孔隙水压力与应变的关系,以及有效应力路径等。     

水泥土桩联合土工格栅复合地基的离心模型试验研究

在软土地基上修筑路堤需要兼顾承载力和变形两方面的要求。针对山区沟谷软基的特点,采用了夯实水泥土桩与土工格栅联合加固的方法,是一种创新,选择合适的试验手段来研究该种型式的复合地基对于工程设计和施工具有重要意义。通过离心模型试验,模拟夯实水泥土桩联合土工格栅复合地基上路堤的填筑进程,水泥土桩采用石膏柱模拟,土工格栅采用预拉伸加筋格网模拟,试验得出了该种复合地基的工程特性。夯实水泥土桩具有较好的加固基础作用,格栅的主要作用是均衡上部荷载和减小差异沉降,采用夯实水泥土桩联合土工格栅的复合地基形式可以满足沟谷软基的沉降控制要求,其最终结论可以为设计和施工提供参考。     

2D viscoplastic finite element modelling of slow landslides: the Portalet case study (Spain)

This paper proposes a hydro-geomechanical finite element model to reproduce the kinematic behaviour of large slow landslides. The interaction between solid skeleton and pore fluids is modelled with a time dependent u–p _w formulation and a groundwater model that takes into account recorded daily rainfall intensity. A viscoplastic constitutive model based on Perzyna’s theory is applied to reproduce soil viscous behaviour and the delayed creep deformation. The proposed model is applied to Portalet landslide (Central Spanish Pyrenees). This is an active paleo-landslide that has been reactivated by the construction of a parking area at the toe of the slope. The stability analysis reveals that, after the constructive solutions were undertaken, the slope is in a limit equilibrium situation. Nevertheless, time-dependent analysis reproduces the nearly constant strain rate (secondary creep) and the acceleration/deceleration of the moving mass due to hydrological changes. Overall, the model reproduces a 2-m displacement in the past 8  years that coincides with in situ monitoring data. The proposed model is useful for short- and mid-term predictions of secondary creep. However, long-time predictions remain uncertain, stability depends strongly on the position of the water table depth and new failures during tertiary creep due to soil temporal microstructural degradation are difficult to calibrate.     

复合土工膜蠕变性能的试验研究

为了了解复合土工膜在长期荷载作用下的蠕变性能,对两布一膜土工合成材料的蠕变问题进行了4级荷载下的蠕变试验研究,通过理论分析建立了两布一膜土工合成材料蠕变方程。结果表明：两布一膜的蠕变特性与承受的荷载有关,当荷载越大,蠕变应变越大;在恒载长期拉伸作用下,两布一膜表现出很强的横向收缩特性,并且颈缩量的大小与荷载成正比;低于60 %极限荷载作用,材料强度仍然保持在70 %左右,可视为可靠而不影响工程的稳定性。