Numerical simulation of crack formation process in clays during drying and wetting

Clays generally crack upon drying and the cracks gradually close up because of expansion of the clays induced by rainfall infiltration. Based on the concept of air drainage ratio, we introduce an improved simplified consolidation theory for unsaturated soils and apply it to solve the crack formation problem. We present initial conditions, special consideration, and finite-element (FEM) formulations for simulation of cracks under axisymmetric conditions. Similar to finding solutions for sand-well consolidation problems, a prism of clays surrounded by polygonal distributed cracks is simplified as a cylinder. Numerical simulations using the FEM formulations are performed on the processes of crack occurrence, propagation, and closure during drying and wetting. To investigate the influence of air drainage ratio distribution, three different schemes are adopted for computation. It is found that the behaviour of cracks in clays during drying and wetting can be well represented using the approach proposed in the paper. The simplified consolidation theory used in the paper for unsaturated soils is more suitable for crack analysis than the general consolidation theory currently applied.     

Optimization of site exploration program for improved prediction of tunneling-induced ground settlement in clays

Excessive settlement caused by tunneling during construction often damages adjacent infrastructures and utilities. Such excessive settlement can also present a challenge in the maintenance of subways during their operation. Thus, it is important to be able to accurately predict tunneling-induced settlement. The uncertainties in geotechnical parameters, however, can lead to either an overestimation or an underestimation of the tunneling-induced settlement. Such uncertainties can arise from many sources such as spatial variability, measurement error, and model error; in this paper, the focus is on the geotechnical parameters characterization from site exploration. The goal here is to determine an optimal level of site exploration effort so that effective predictions of the tunneling-induced settlement in clays can be achieved. To this end, a Monte Carlo simulation-based numerical model of site exploration is first established to generate artificial test data. Then, a series of parametric analyses are performed to investigate the relationship between the level of site exploration effort and the accuracy of the tunneling-induced ground settlement prediction. Through the assumed different levels of site exploration effort, statistics of soil parameters are estimated using the maximum likelihood method and the tunneling-induced ground settlement is then analyzed using the probabilistic method, and finally the effect of site exploration effort is assessed. The knowledge generated from this series of analyses is then used to develop the proposed framework for selecting an optimal site exploration program for improved prediction of the tunneling-induced ground settlement in clays. Examples are presented to illustrate the proposed framework and demonstrate its effectiveness and significance.     

Assessment of strut forces for braced excavation in clays from numerical analysis and field measurements

One important consideration in the design of a braced excavation system is to ensure that the structural bracing system is designed both safely and economically. The forces acting on the struts are often determined using empirical methods such as the Apparent Pressure Diagram (APD) method developed by Peck (1969). Most of these empirical methods that were developed from either numerical analysis or field studies have been for excavations with flexible wall types such as sheetpile walls. There have been only limited studies on the excavation performance for stiffer wall systems such as diaphragm walls and bored piles. In this paper, both 2D and 3D finite element analyses were carried out to study the forces acting on the struts for braced excavations in clays, with focus on the performance for the stiffer wall systems. Subsequently, based on this numerical study as well as field measurements from a number of reported case histories, empirical charts have been proposed for determining strut loads for excavations in stiff wall systems.     

Evidences of felsic volcanism and hydrothermal activities from clays associated with the Palaeoproterozoic Porcellanite Formation of the Vindhyan Supergroup,Central India

Chemico-mineralogical attributes of authigenic clays associated with the altered volcanic tuffs that occur in the Palaeoproterozoic Porcellanite Formation contain evidences of hydrothermal alteration and diagenetic processes in a marine environment. Previous sedimentological and geochemical studies on Porcellanite Formation were restricted to the Chopan area, but, the details related to provenance, nature and source of volcanism archived in these clays have not been ascertained. In order to understand these aspects, present study on these authigenic clays were carried out. Clay minerals represent dominance of illite with subordinate amount of montmorillonite. Moreover, low abundance of kaolinite is also noticed. The illite fibers and plates associated with the kaolinite indicate illitization. The kaolinite to illite transformation is favoured by incorporation of K⁺ ions, derived from the K-feldspar dissolution and its overgrowth. Major oxide contents of these clays and their ratios when plotted over diagrams marked with standard illite, kaolinite, smectite and chlorite compositional fields show clustering within or close to the illite field. Thermodynamic components calculated for these clays when plotted over AR₂³⁺AlSi₃O₁₀(OH)₂ − R₂³⁺Si₄O₁₀(OH)₂ − AR²⁺R³⁺Si₄O₁₀(OH)₂ ternary diagram, data plots lie within the illite, mixed layer I/S and smectite fields. Binary major oxide data plots between bulk rock and authigenic clay compositions showed felsic affinity. Montmorillonite and illite predominated in the eastern and western marginal areas of the Vindhyan Basin, respectively. However, former resulted from the hydrothermal alteration of volcanic glass associated with the ferruginous breccia and altered tuffs and remnants of the volcanic vents, whereas, later is associated with the tuffaceous beds. Owing to the adsorption, Ba, Rb and Sr is enriched in clays comparing to the bulk rock composition. Low (< 15 ppm) Sc values suggested major contribution from the felsic component. Also, low Rb/Sr and Th/U values revealed moderate insitu weathering. The dominance of K-feldspar alteration and insitu weathering is also evident from clustering of clay data plots in the A-CN-K ternary diagram. Pronounced negative Eu anomaly together with higher LREE/HREE values associated with these clay minerals implied proximity to source and their possible derivation from the silicified felsic tuffs available in the provenance.     

Effects of soil structure on soil behaviour: Illustrated with loess, glacially loaded clay and simulated flaser bedding examples

Soil structure is considered to be a systematic homogeneously repetitive heterogeneity of properties and conditions of soil. For upscaling and homogenisation of properties and conditions it is necessary to understand the ways in which soil structures occur, and to obtain understanding of the ways in which it influences soil behaviour. Using three case studies, different aspects of the effects of soil structure in soil mechanics are discussed. The very loose grain scale packing of loess deposits, held together by weak structural bonds between particles, results in dramatic propagating failure when the strength of the bonds is exceeded by deformations, as illustrated in the first case. Nonhorizontal stresses induced in the subsurface below moving continental ice sheets result in rotated stress fields within the affected soil. The rotated stress field is stored in the structure of the soil, as is shown in the second case, and influences present day properties and behaviour of these clays. It is shown in the third case that there is a large difference in the behaviour of clayey sand depending on whether the clay occurs in the form of the common clay flasers or whether the clay is homogeneously dispersed in the sand. The deformation and stress propagation in the case of sand with clay flasers results in local failures and shear planes due to the large contrast in the properties of the materials making up the sedimentary structure. The result is that many of the properties of sand with flasers are rather more like the clay of the flasers than the sand. Incorporation in the engineering practice of effects of common types of soil structure is made possible with the widespread availability of techniques such as numerical modelling. These techniques enable the development of appropriate tools for practical application.     

Historical record of heavy metal pollution deduced by lead isotope ratios in core sediments from the Osaka Bay,Japan

Three marine sediment cores from Osaka Bay were analyzed for ²¹⁰Pb geochronology, heavy metal concentrations (Zn, Cu, and Pb) and stable lead isotope ratios (²⁰⁶Pb/²⁰⁷Pb) in order to reconstruct high-resolution heavy metal pollution history from 1900–2006. Anthropogenic metal accumulation in sediments peaked in 1970 in agreement with the high economic growth period in Japan. The comparison of temporal patterns of ²⁰⁶Pb/²⁰⁷Pb ratio with other areas of Japan suggested that the heavy metals, imported from several different countries during the periods of economic growth (1955 to 1973), are the main pollution source for the country. For the period 1970–2006, the sediment data reflect the result of stricter environmental regulations applied after the late 1960s. However, heavy metal concentrations in the surface sediments are still elevated to levels several times higher than the levels at the bottoms of the cores. Additionally, the lead isotope ratio does not show significant change after the 1980s. Secondary heavy metal pollution through the mixing of deeper polluted sediment appears to be the likely reason for the deterioration of present time submarine sediment environments. In conclusion, this study has demonstrated that it is difficult to recover over a period of several years the benthic quality of a bay, once it is heavily polluted.     

软土盾构施工地表变形的小样本进化神经网络预测

上海地区软土具有高压缩性和易塑流等特性,在盾构机的挤压和不当施工扰动下将会引起较大的土层移动和地表隆陷。以盾构施工实测位移资料为学习样本,通过遗传算法搜索具有最优预测效果的神经网络结构及学习参数。利用获得的进化神经网络在小样本训练情况下建立模型,对下一步施工的地表变形进行合理的预测。对上海市某盾构隧道的施工地表变形预测表明该模型可获得较高预测精度。     

隧道水平冻结施工期地表融沉的历时预测模型

隧道冻结工程中所形成的人工冻结壁为临时支护结构,隧道衬砌结构施工后,冻结壁要进入解冻期,由于冻结壁解冻过程中的地层融沉现象对隧道周边环境影响较大,因此,应建立合理的方法对地表融沉量进行预测,以便于实际施工中采取相应的融沉控制措施。为此,考虑冻结壁的自然解冻过程,基于随机介质理论,建立了隧道水平冻结施工期地表融沉的历时预测模型。并提出冻结壁自然解冻条件下瞬态温度场由平板解冻理论近似求解,基于平板解冻理论和一维情况下已融土层的稳定融沉量计算公式,确定了预测模型中解冻锋面半径和融缩区域内半径这2个关键参数的取值方法。将所建立的预测模型应用于隧道全断面水平冻结工程中,得到了地表融沉随解冻时间的变化规律。研究结果表明,地表融沉在解冻初期增长速度较快,而在解冻后期增长速度减缓,地表历时融沉量与崔托维奇通过试验得出的天然冻土历时融沉量变化规律相一致。     

软土路基大应变黏弹塑性正/反分析沉降预测对比

结合软土变形的大位移、大应变、渗透固结及依时性特点,采用黏弹塑（西原）模型模拟土骨架,建立了分析软土地基的大应变黏弹塑性有限元列式和迭代求解算法,并采用动态“生”“死”单元模拟路堤的施工过程,建立了软土路基双重非线性渗透固结分析模型,研制了相应的大型实用化有限元分析程序LSVEP。分别采用反分析所得参数和室内试验确定参数对路基地表沉降和地基深层沉降进行预测,并将所得结果和现场实测结果进行对比分析,结果表明：所建立的大应变黏弹塑性有限元分析方法正确;计算参数的准确选择对沉降预测精度影响很大;用反分析所得参数进行沉降预测的精度远高于正分析预测,是提高沉降预测精度的有效途径,可供类似工程借鉴。     

歧深地区双超压系统发育特征及油气成藏效应

在钻井实测储层压力(DST)、计算泥岩压力及地震资料解释的基础上,对歧深地区超压体系发育特征、分布规律和成藏效应进行了深入分析,认为歧深地区具有"三层压力结构,两个超压系统"特征。压力结构在纵向上可以划分为常压系统、上部弱超压系统和下部超压系统。超压从东营组开始出现,歧口凹陷中心超压最强,北大港东翼、歧口凹陷及板桥凹陷超压次之。双超压结构对歧深地区油气聚集有明显的控制作用,从而形成了"上油下气"分布格局,由此建立了"双压控藏"模式。     

Multiple overpressure systems and their relationship with hydrocarbon accumulation in the Qikou Depression of the Bohai Bay Basin,China

Pressure measurements using drill stem tests and estimates from log data calculation indicate that three vertically stacked regional pressure compartments exist in the Qikou Depression of Bohai Bay Basin, N. China. The compartments comprise hydrostatic, upper weak, and lower overpressure systems. Laterally, overpressure (pressure coefficient > 1.2) occurs in the deeper areas and weakens gradually from the centre to the margin of the depression. The accumulation of oil and gas exhibits the interesting characteristics of oil‐bearing layers above gas‐bearing layers in the Qikou Depression. The pattern can be accounted for by the evolution of overpressure system, the maturity process of the source rock and the main fault activity. In the late Dongying Formation (Ed, 30 Ma), the lower overpressure system began to form shape, and the hydrocarbon sources generated a large volume of oil. However, because there was no migration pathway, the oil only accumulated in the original strata. In the late Guantao Formation (Ng, 12 Ma), the gas was generated, the upper overpressure system formed gradually, and the activity of the main fault gradually increased. Then, the overpressure pushed the early gathered oil to flow from the lower overpressure system into the upper overpressure system. Afterwards, the activity of the main fault decreased again and remains weak until now. Thus, later generated natural gas cannot keep migrating along the main fault and can only accumulate in the lower overpressure system. Copyright © 2014 John Wiley & Sons, Ltd.     

Comparative analysis of groundwater formation in arid and super-arid deserts (with examples from Central Asia and northeastern Arabian Peninsula)

Groundwater formation within arid and super-arid deserts is discussed through comparative analysis. Although fresh groundwater is being formed in both types of deserts, mainly from infiltrated surface runoff, in arid deserts, infiltration is currently taking place, whereas in super-arid areas, it occurred mainly in the Pleistocene pluvial epoch. Groundwater discharge conditions are also different. In arid deserts, the discharge occurs mainly through transpiration by phreatophytes, which form phyto-hydrogeological ecosystems where the dominant factor is an interaction between groundwater and vegetation, with transpiration reaching over hundreds of mm/year and the thickness of the groundwater evaporation zone extending over 10 m. Active subsurface water exchange does not favor the preservation of Pleistocene fossil groundwater. Super-arid deserts, however, have an extremely scarce vegetative cover (low, if any), physical evaporation, a thin zone of evaporation influence, and slow water outflow. Favorable conditions therefore exist for the preservation of relict low-mineralized waters. Furthermore, arid and super-arid deserts differ by types of groundwater accumulation and horizontal and vertical zonalities. In arid deserts, hydrogeological problems are connected with the anthropogenic influence upon groundwater, and with control on rational use of surface water and groundwater. In super-arid deserts, the basic problem is depletion of fossil groundwater.     

Challenges in high-pressure granulite metamorphism in the era of pseudosections: reaction textures, compositional zoning and tectonic interpretation with examples from the Bohemian Massif

High‐pressure granulites are an important record of geodynamic processes in overthickened or subducted continental crust. Orthopyroxene‐free assemblages in granitic (ternary feldspar(s) + quartz + garnet + kyanite + rutile), intermediate (ternary feldspar(s) + quartz + garnet + clinopyroxene ± kyanite ±rutile ± titanite) and basic (garnet + clinopyroxene + plagioclase ± quartz + rutile) compositions indicate formation conditions at mantle depths. Clinopyroxene compositions in Variscan high‐pressure granulites are unusual in that they include omphacite (in plagioclase‐bearing rocks thus not eclogite) and Al‐rich diopside (i.e. indicating high Ca‐Tschermak content), with both yielding temperatures above 900 °C. Problems such as compositional zoning, multiple generations of key phases in reaction domains and unmixing of high‐temperature solid‐solution phases during cooling (ternary feldspars, omphacite) clearly indicate disequilibrium and require very careful interpretation as to which phases and compositions possibly represent a former equilibrium association. Pressure–temperature (P–T) determination by the pseudosection method, although allowing prediction of mineral assemblages, compositions and molar proportions for a fixed bulk composition for modelled P–T conditions, still requires reliable activity–composition information for the key phases feldspar and clinopyroxene as well as an interpretation of former equilibrium compositions in the investigated samples, i.e. the same restrictions applying to conventional thermobarometry. The interpretations of some recently determined pseudosections for the composition of Variscan clinopyroxene‐bearing high‐pressure granulites contradict numerous published P–T paths. However, quantitative information from thermobarometry or pseudosections must be integrated with key petrographic observations. In the case of the Variscan example, it is argued that petrographic observations and published P–T paths are consistent with mineral assemblages predicted in pseudosections and support existing tectonometamorphic models.     

Arsenic accumulation in the roots of Helianthus annuus and Zea mays by irrigation with arsenic-rich groundwater: Insights from synchrotron X-ray fluorescence imaging

The aim of this study was to investigate the accumulation of arsenic (As) in and on roots of Zea mays (maize) and Helianthus annuus (sunflower) by means of synchrotron-based micro-focused X-ray fluorescence imaging (μ-XRF). Plant and soil samples were collected from two field sites in the Hetao Plain (Inner Mongolia, China) which have been regularly irrigated with As-rich groundwater. Detailed μ-XRF element distribution maps were generated at the Fluo-beamline of the Anka synchrotron facility (Karlsruhe Institute of Technology) to assess the spatial distribution of As in thin sections of plant roots and soil particles. The results showed that average As concentrations in the roots (14.5–27.4 mg kg⁻¹) covered a similar range as in the surrounding soil, but local maximum root As concentrations reached up to 424 mg kg⁻¹ (H. annuus) and 1280 mg kg⁻¹ (Z. mays), respectively. Importantly, the results revealed that As had mainly accumulated at the outer rhizodermis along with iron (Fe). We therefore conclude that thin crusts of Fe-(hydr)oxides cover the roots and act as an effective barrier to As, similar to the formation of Fe plaque in rice roots. In contrast to permanently flooded rice paddy fields, regular flood irrigation results in variable redox conditions within the silty and loamy soils at our study site and fosters the formation of Fe-(hydr)oxide plaque on the root surfaces.     

Relationship of chemical fractions of heavy metals with microbial and enzyme activities in sludge and ash-amended acid lateritic soil from India

The influence of metals, Cd, Cr, Cu, Ni, Pb and Zn, on the microbial biomass and enzyme activities of an amended acid lateritic soil were investigated under field conditions receiving a one-time application of 52 t ha^–1 of sludge, coal ash and their mixtures at 1:3, 1:1 and 3:1 proportions, and including control and chemical fertilizer treatment at crop-specific recommended doses. Paddies and peanuts were grown in the experimental plots and soil was sampled twice after 6 months and 1 year after amendment application. The heavy metals in the soil were fractionated using sequential extraction and the increments in their concentrations in amended soil with respect to the control were determined. Concentrations of Cd, Ni and Zn were determined to have increased in their mobile fractions and were more pronounced in soil collected during the second sampling, which was associated with a decrease in soil organic carbon. The size of the microbial biomass carbon and the soil enzyme activities increased with the addition of an amendment and was highest at equal proportions of coal ash and sludge. Further increase in the proportion of sludge resulted in a significant decrease in biomass carbon. Simple correlation revealed significant and strong negative relations of mobile fractions of Cd and Ni with the ratio between microbial biomass C and organic carbon in soil, while the organic carbon content and the pH were positively correlated. The microbial activities were determined to be sensitive to the concentrations of some heavy metals in mobile fractions and therefore indicated possibilities of being useful as indicators for evaluation of toxic effects of sludge-borne metals on soil organisms.     

微构造对低渗透油气成藏的控制作用——以鄂尔多斯盆地丰富川油田西区为例

低渗透岩性油藏成藏作用主要受控沉积相和成岩作用。但是,勘探实践表明,在砂体背景之上分布的微构造对低渗透油气成藏具有明显的控制作用。位于鄂尔多斯盆地中东部的丰富川油田西区为多层系低渗透复合含油区,油气成藏类型复杂多样。笔者以该区为例,在对该区主要含油层系微构造及其演化特征研究基础上,探讨鼻状隆起构造对油气富集成藏的控制作用。研究表明,丰富川油田西区在东高、西低的西倾单斜背景上发育多个自东向西倾没的鼻状隆起构造;本区侏罗纪古河道下切深度小,残余的长1厚层泥岩限制了油气向上运移,延安组石油富集程度明显弱于延长组。低幅度鼻状隆起微构造对长2和长4+5油气成藏具有明显的控制作用,长2油层组顶面构造高点清楚,微隆起构造对油气富集控制作用非常明显,长2油藏具上油下水特征,发育低水和边水,油水界面清楚,具有岩性-构造油藏的基本特征。而长4+5和长6油藏除了岩性油藏外,也发育构造-岩性复合油藏。研究表明,微构造研究对低渗透油层油气富集规律研究和老油区扩边勘探具有重要指导意义。     

山东省旧石器-商周时期古遗址时空分布及其与水文地貌的关系

以山东省为研究区,全面收集区域旧石器-商周时期古遗址数据建立数据库,结合SRTM DEM、SLOPE和SPECT等数据,利用ArcGIS 10.3软件对旧石器至商周时期3338处古遗址与高程、坡度、坡向、濒河度及海岸线变化的关系进行分析,探索古遗址时空分布与水文地貌的关系。结果表明：1）随着文化发展,古遗址在数量上整体上表现为先减后增又减的趋势,空间分布由鲁中南丘陵区→鲁西北平原区→鲁中环西北丘陵区→鲁中山地丘陵区逐渐扩展。2）古遗址主要分布在海拔20~100 m的区域,达到2019个,占比约60.49%;较大面积的古遗址主要分布在海拔100~200 m的区域,达到0.87 km² /个;较小面积的古遗址主要分布在海拔50~100 m区域,为0.47 km² /个。3）古遗址主要分布在坡度0°~3°的区域,达到2824个,占比约84.6%,充分说明坡度较小的区域适宜古人居住;坡向分布在光照较好和光照较差区域的古遗址数量基本相当,但光照较好的古遗址总面积大于光照较差区域约30%,从侧面证明古人选址倾向于光照充足的区域。4）各时期古遗址的濒河性呈先增后减又增的趋势,主要分布在距离水系水平距离3000 m范围内,达到836个,占比约25.04%;古遗址主要分布在5级水系附近,占比约18.0%,与水系级别呈负相关,这与古人取水便捷和水患频发有关。5）在莱州湾南岸和胶州湾环岸地区,古遗址的分布主要受控于黄河三角洲的频繁变动和海平面变化。

     

爆裂法作为快速测定流体包裹体中二氧化碳（和其它气体）含量的手段及其在勘探中的使用：以中国山东和河北省金矿为例

The acoustic decrepitation method heats a small monomineralic sample and counts pressure impulses as the inclusions burst when they develop high internal pressures. For aqueous fluids, the decrepitation temperature is correlated with the homogenisation temperature, but gas rich fluids give a distinct and characteristic low temperature decrepitation peak which can be used to recognize gas rich fluid inclusions. This information is useful in exploration for Au deposits, which are frequently associated with CO2 rich and sometimes CH4 rich fluids. This distinctive decrepitation occurs because the CO2 rich inclusion fluids expand according to the gas law and develop internal pressures high enough to burst the host mineral grain at temperatures well below their homogenisation temperatures. In contrast, aqueous fluids condense to a liquid and vapour phase during post-entrapment cooling. Upon subsequent heating their internal pressures do not increase significantly until after homogenisation to a single phase occurs and hence they do not decrepitate ＂prematurely＂ as gas rich inclusions do. This behaviour is usually regarded as an annoyance in conventional microthermometric homogenisation studies, but can readily be used as an exploration aid to find mineralisation deposited from such gas rich fluids. Decrepitation results on samples from Cowra Ck, NSW, Australia, which have also been microthermometrically measured for CO2 content, show that amounts of less than 5 mole % CO2 are easily distinguished by decrepitation and amounts as low as 1 mole % CO2 may be determinable. Examples of the use of acoustic decrepitation in the study of 6 gold mines in the Shandong and Hebei provinces of China are discussed.     

雪球状石榴子石变斑晶的形成机制:以南迦巴瓦地区雅鲁藏布江缝合带西侧石英片岩为例

雅鲁藏布江缝合带米林地区的石英片岩糜棱岩化强烈,线理及面理构造发育。S-C组构、"σ"残斑以及不对称褶皱等指示了上盘相对下盘向NW下滑的剪切运动趋势。电子背散射衍射(EBSD)测试结果表明:雪球状石榴子石变斑晶边部面理(S2)中石英包裹体晶格优选方位模式图指示的运动指向与石英岩基质面理(或外部面理;S3)中石英包裹体晶格优选方位模式图指示的运动指向一致,都是上盘向NW正滑。然而,雪球状石榴子石的核部(S1)石英包裹体优选方位(LPO)模式图指示相反运动指向。能量色散显微分析(EDS)测试结果表明石榴子石的成分环带显示连续生长环带特征。连接石榴子石核部面理(S1)可以恢复得到石英岩早期不对称褶皱形状的面理轨迹。这些说明文章样品中雪球状石榴子石变斑晶是生长在不对称褶皱之上的。此过程主要是剪切方向发生了旋转,而不是石榴子石自身旋转。这种雪球状石榴子石变斑晶的存在说明南迦巴瓦地区雅鲁藏布江缝合带西侧岩石最初经历向SE的逆冲作用,后期经历由SE向NW的拆离滑脱事件。