Investigation of the groundwater modelling component of the Integrated Water Flow Model (IWFM)

ABSTRACT

The Integrated Water Flow Model (IWFM), developed by the California Department of Water Resources, is an integrated hydrological model that simulates key flow processes including groundwater flows, streamflow, stream–aquifer interactions, rainfall–runoff and infiltration. It also simulates the agricultural water demand as a function of soil, crop and climatic characteristics, as well as irrigation practices, and allows the user to meet these demands through pumping and stream diversions. This study investigates the modelling performance of the groundwater module of IWFM using several hypothetical test problems that cover a wide range of settings and boundary conditions, by comparing the simulation results with analytical solutions, field and laboratory observations, or with results from MODFLOW outputs. The comparisons demonstrate that IWFM is capable of simulating various hydrological processes reliably.

EDITOR M.C. Acreman; ASSOCIATE EDITOR A. Efstratiadis     

Satellite based estimates of terrestrial water storage variations in Turkey

In recent years, the Gravity Recovery and Climate Experiment (GRACE) has provided a new tool to study terrestrial water storage variations (TWS) at medium and large spatial scales, providing quantitative measures of TWS change. Linear trends in TWS variations in Turkey were estimated using GRACE observations for the period March 2003 to March 2009. GRACE showed a significant decrease in TWS in the southern part of the central Anatolian region up to a rate of 4 cm/year. The Global Land Data Assimilation System (GLDAS) model also captured this TWS decrease event but with underestimated trend values. The GLDAS model represents only a part of the total TWS variations, the sum of soil moisture (2 m column depth) and snow water equivalent, ignoring groundwater variations. Therefore, GLDAS model derived TWS variations were subtracted from GRACE derived TWS variations to estimate groundwater storage variations. Results revealed that decreasing trends of TWS observed by GRACE in the southern part of central Anatolia were largely explained by the decreasing trends of groundwater variations which were confirmed by the limited available well groundwater level data in the region.     

Characterizing replenishment water,lake water and groundwater interactions by numerical modelling in arid regions: a case study of Shahu Lake

In order to maintain the scenic and eco-environmental values of a lake, we need to characterize its water interactions. Shahu Lake was used as a case study to show the interactions among replenishment water, lake water and groundwater in an arid region. Shahu Lake is located in the Ningxia Hui Autonomous Region of northwest China and has an area of 13.96 km² and an average depth of 2.2 m. The groundwater modelling software MODFLOW was used. The analysis results show that hydraulic connectivity among replenishment water, lake water and groundwater is the crucial driving factor that affects the water level in Shahu Lake. The lake water level is highly sensitive to the volume of replenishment water. The groundwater is of great importance in balancing the water level in the lake and preventing it from drying up. It was determined that 13.8 × 10⁶ m³/yr is the optimal volume of replenishment water for Shahu Lake in order to maintain the lake level at its normal state and also to make the best use of available water resources on a long-term basis. Understanding of the water interactions can promote effective management of water resources in Shahu Lake.

EDITOR D. Koutsoyiannis

ASSOCIATE EDITOR D. Hughes     

Estimating mean residence time of karst groundwater in mountainous catchments of Western Himalaya,India

The mean residence time (MRT) of karst groundwater in three mountainous catchments of the Western Himalaya was estimated using multiple approaches: the tritium method, the sine wave model and tracer tests. Water samples were collected from precipitation, glacier melt, streams and karst springs for δ²H and tritium analysis during 2012 and 2013. High tritium values were observed in winter precipitation and low values in summer precipitation. The variation of tritium in karst springs was similar to that of the streams, whereas glacier melt showed lower tritium values. The MRT of cold karst springs was shorter than that of warm karst springs. The tracer breakthrough curves (TBC) retrieved for different springs suggested a short travel time for groundwater and possibly conduit flow. Deterioration of water quality and variation in flux magnitude are the two main practical consequences of the short travel time of karst groundwater in the region.

EDITOR D. Koutsoyiannis

ASSOCIATE EDITOR K. Heal     

Heterogeneity influences on stream water–groundwater interactions in a gravel-dominated floodplain

ABSTRACT

Floodplains are composed of complex depositional patterns of ancient and recent stream sediments, and research is needed to address the manner in which coarse floodplain materials affect stream–groundwater exchange patterns. Efforts to understand the heterogeneity of aquifers have utilized numerous techniques typically focused on point-scale measurements; however, in highly heterogeneous settings, the ability to model heterogeneity is dependent on the data density and spatial distribution. The objective of this research was to investigate the correlation between broad-scale methodologies for detecting heterogeneity and the observed spatial variability in stream/groundwater interactions of gravel-dominated alluvial floodplains. More specifically, this study examined the correlation between electrical resistivity (ER) and alluvial groundwater patterns during a flood event at a site on Barren Fork Creek, in the Ozark ecoregion of Oklahoma, USA, where chert gravels were common both as streambed and as floodplain material. Water table elevations from groundwater monitoring wells for a flood event on 1–5 May 2009 were compared to ER maps at various elevations. Areas with high ER matched areas with lower water table slope at the same elevation. This research demonstrated that ER approaches were capable of indicating heterogeneity in surface water–groundwater interactions, and that these heterogeneities were present even in an aquifer matrix characterized as highly conductive. Portions of gravel-dominated floodplain vadose zones characterized by high hydraulic conductivity features can result in heterogeneous flow patterns when the vadose zone of alluvial floodplains activates during storm events.

EDITOR D. Koutsoyiannis; ASSOCIATE EDITOR X. Chen     

Analysis of recharge conceptualization in inverse groundwater modelling

ABSTRACT

This study presents a systematic illustration quantifying how misleading the calibration results of a groundwater simulation model can be when recharge rates are considered as the model parameters to be estimated by inverse modelling. Three approaches to recharge estimation are compared: autocalibration (Model 1), the empirical return coefficient method (Model 2), and distributed hydrological modelling using the Soil and Water Assessment Tool, SWAT (Model 3). The methodology was applied in the Dehloran Plain, western Iran, using the MODFLOW modular flow simulator and the PEST method for autocalibration. The results indicate that, although Model 1 performed the best in simulating water levels at observation wells in the calibration stage, it did not perform satisfactorily in real future scenarios. Model 3, with SWAT-based recharge rates, performed better than the other models in the validation stage. By not evaluating the model performance solely on calibration results, we demonstrate the relative significance of using more accurate recharge estimates when calibrating groundwater simulation models.

EDITOR D. Koutsoyiannis; ASSOCIATE EDITOR M. Besbes     

Assessing drought threats to agricultural water supplies under climate change by combining the SWAT and MODSIM models for the Geum River basin,South Korea

ABSTRACT

The impacts of future climate change on the agricultural water supply capacities of irrigation facilities in the Geum River basin (9645.5 km²) of South Korea were investigated using an integrated modeling framework that included a water balance network model (MODSIM) and a watershed-scale hydrologic model (Soil and Water Assessment Tool, SWAT). The discharges and baseflows from upland drainage areas were estimated using SWAT, and the predicted flow was used to feed agricultural reservoirs and multipurpose dams in subwatersheds. Using a split sampling method, we calibrated the daily streamflows and dam inflows at three locations using data from 6 years, including 3 years of calibration data (2005–2007) followed by 3 years of validation data (2008–2010). In the MODSIM model, the entire basin was divided into 14 subwatersheds in which various agricultural irrigation facilities such as agricultural reservoirs, pumping stations, diversions, culverts and groundwater wells were defined as a network of hydraulic structures within each subwatershed. These hydraulic networks between subwatersheds were inter-connected to allow watershed-scale analysis and were further connected to municipal and industrial water supplies under various hydrologic conditions. Projected climate data from the HadGEM3-RA RCP 4.5 and 8.5 scenarios for the period of 2006–2099 were imported to SWAT to calculate the water yield, and the output was transferred to MODSIM in the form of time-series boundary conditions. The maximum shortage rate of agricultural water was estimated as 38.2% for the 2040s and 2080s under the RCP 4.5 scenario but was lower under the RCP 8.5 scenario (21.3% in the 2040s and 22.1% in the 2080s). Under the RCP 4.5 scenario, the projected shortage rate was higher than that during the measured baseline period (1982–2011) of 25.6% and the RCP historical period (1982–2005) of 30.1%. The future elevated drought levels are primarily attributed to the increasingly concentrated rainfall distribution throughout the year under a monsoonal climate, as projected by the IPCC climate scenarios.

EDITOR Z.W. Kundzewicz; ASSOCIATE EDITOR not assigned     

Stable isotope tracing of headwater sources in a river on China’s Loess Plateau

Distinguishing headwater components can provide fundamental information for water resources management; however, this is difficult with the hydrometric method for regions with a thick unsaturated zone. We sampled headwaters, precipitation and groundwater in a river on China’s Loess Plateau to determine the isotopic composition, and identified headwater components by an isotope mass balance method. The isotopic composition of precipitation varies greatly, whereas that of groundwater is almost constant, which validates the applicability of the isotope mass balance method. During the dry season, the contributions of precipitation and groundwater to headwaters are both 50% for the upper reach, while they are 20 and 80%, respectively, for the lower reach; however, during the wet season, the contributions are, respectively, 67 and 33% for the upper reach, and 43 and 57% for the lower reach. The headwaters respond quickly to rainfall but are dominated by groundwater. Groundwater protection should be of high priority to sustain the catchment-scale hydrological cycle.

EDITOR D. Koutsoyiannis ASSOCIATE EDITOR M.D. Fidelibus     

Characterization of Ethiopian mega hydrogeological regimes using GRACE,TRMM and GLDAS datasets

Understanding the spatio-temporal characteristics of water storage changes is crucial for Ethiopia, a country that is facing a range of challenges in water management caused by anthropogenic impacts as well as climate variability. In addition to this, the scarcity of in situ measurements of soil moisture and groundwater, combined with intrinsic “scale limitations” of traditional methods used in hydrological characterization are further limiting the ability to assess water resource distribution in the region. The primary objective of this study is therefore to apply remotely sensed and model data over Ethiopia in order to (i) test the performance of models and remotely sensed data in modeling water resources distribution in un-gauged arid regions of Ethiopia, (ii) analyze the inter-annual and seasonal variability as well as changes in total water storage (TWS) over Ethiopia, (iii) understand the relationship between TWS changes, rainfall, and soil moisture anomalies over the study region, and (iv) identify the relationship between the characteristics of aquifers and TWS changes. The data used in this study includes; monthly gravity field data from the Gravity Recovery And Climate Experiment (GRACE) mission, rainfall data from the Tropical Rainfall Measuring Mission (TRMM), and soil moisture from the Global Land Data Assimilation System (GLDAS) model. Our investigation covers a period of 8 years from 2003 to 2011. The results of the study show that the western part and the north-eastern lowlands of Ethiopia experienced decrease in TWS water between 2003–2011, whereas all the other regions gained water during the study period. The impact of rainfall seasonality was also seen in the TWS changes. Applying the statistical method of Principal Component Analysis (PCA) to TWS, soil moisture and rainfall variations indentified the dominant annual water variability in the western, north-western, northern, and central regions, and the dominant seasonal variability in the western, north-western, and the eastern regions. A correlation analysis between TWS and rainfall indicated a minimum time lag of zero to a maximum of six months, whereas no lag is noticeable between soil moisture anomalies and TWS changes. The delay response and correlation coefficient between rainfall and TWS appears to be related to recharge mechanisms, revealing that most regions of Ethiopia receive indirect recharge. Our results also show that the magnitude of TWS changes is higher in the western region and lower in the north-eastern region, and that the elevation influences soil moisture as well as TWS.     

A comparative study on a simple two-parameter monthly water balance model and the Kajiyama formula for monthly runoff estimation

ABSTRACT

A two-parameter monthly water balance model to simulate runoff can be used for a water resources planning programme and climate impact studies. However, the model estimates two parameters of transformation of time scale (c) and of the field capacity (SC) by a trial-and-error method. This study suggests a modified methodology to estimate the parameters c and SC using the meteorological and geological conditions. The modified model is compared with the Kajiyama formula to simulate the runoff in the Han River and International Hydrological Programme representative basins in South Korea. We show that the estimated c and SC can be used as the initial or optimal values for the monthly runoff simulation study in the model.

EDITOR M.C. Acreman; ASSOCIATE EDITOR S. Kanae     

Assessment of groundwater recharge influenced by floodwater spreading: an integrated approach with limited accessible data

To assess the response of groundwater to artificial recharge through floodwater spreading (FWS) a combination approach of water table fluctuations and water budget was used. In this process, water level data in six observation wells installed inside and around the site of the FWS systems together with the amount of rainfall and volume of floodwater diverted to the system were examined during the period 1993–2012. Specific yield was also determined based on measured soil hydraulic properties for three experimental wells hand drilled within the FWS systems. The observation wells located inside the FWS systems were less susceptible to drought and abstractions than the other wells in the area. The hydrograph of the wells inside the FWS showed a large disparity in rises (0.5–2.05 m) after the two major floods in 2004 and 2005 due to systems closure in 2004. The water budget calculated based on water table fluctuations for 2010/11 showed that the contribution of FWS systems to total recharge in the study area was about 57–61%.

EDITOR D. Koutsoyiannis

ASSOCIATE EDITOR S. Kanae     

Hydraulic diffusivity in a coastal aquifer: spectral analysis of groundwater level in responses to marine system

The hydraulic diffusivity gives a measure of diffusion speed of pressure disturbances in groundwater system; large values of hydraulic diffusivity lead to fast propagation of signals in aquifer. This research provides a novel design and derives spectral representation to determine hydraulic diffusivity using spectral analysis of groundwater levels coupled with time-dependent boundary adjacent to marine system and no flow boundary in aquifer system. To validate the proposed method, water levels of fluctuated boundary and groundwater well in a sandy confined aquifer were collected. The hydraulic diffusivity is then obtained by an inverse process in the non-linear complex form of spectral relationship. The method essentially is constructed on the conceptual design of natural forcing transmitted in large aquifer. It is unlike the conventional field pumping test which is only used to determine hydraulic properties of groundwater in small range around the well. Hydraulic diffusivity of the confined aquifer is determined using real observation and then checked by comparing to the published range. It suggests that without local aquifer test to estimate hydraulic diffusivity in a coastal aquifer using spectral representation with its relevant flow system and boundary has become feasible.     

Assessment of radar-based locally varying anisotropy on daily rainfall interpolation

ABSTRACT

Spatial variability of rainfall has been recognised as an important factor controlling the hydrological response of catchments. However, gauged daily rainfall data are often available at scattered locations over the catchments. This paper looks into how to capitalise on the spatial structure of radar rainfall data for improving kriging interpolation of limited gauge data over catchments at the 1-km² grid scale, using for the case study 117 gauged stations within the 128 km × 128 km region of the Mt Stapylton weather radar field (near Brisbane, Australia). Correlograms were developed using a Fast Fourier Transform method on the Gaussianised radar and gauged data. It is observed that the correlograms vary from day to day and display significant anisotropy. For the radar data, locally varying anisotropy (LVA) was examined by developing the correlogram centred on each pixel and for different radial distances. Cross-validation was carried out using the empirical correlogram tables, as well as different fitting strategies of a two-dimensional exponential distribution for both the gauged and the radar data. The results indicate that the correlograms based on the radar data outperform the gauged ones as judged by statistical measures including root mean square error, mean bias, mean absolute bias, mean standard deviation and mean inter-quartile range. While the radar data display significant LVA, it was observed that LVA did not significantly improve the estimates compared with the global anisotropy. This was also confirmed by conditional simulation of 120 rainfields using different options of correlogram development.

EDITOR M.C. Acreman; ASSOCIATE EDITOR Q. Zhang     

Groundwater Storage Changes: Present Status from GRACE Observations

Satellite gravity measurements from the Gravity Recovery and Climate Experiment (GRACE) provide quantitative measurement of terrestrial water storage (TWS) changes with unprecedented accuracy. Combining GRACE-observed TWS changes and independent estimates of water change in soil and snow and surface reservoirs offers a means for estimating groundwater storage change. Since its launch in March 2002, GRACE time-variable gravity data have been successfully used to quantify long-term groundwater storage changes in different regions over the world, including northwest India, the High Plains Aquifer and the Central Valley in the USA, the North China Plain, Middle East, and southern Murray–Darling Basin in Australia, where groundwater storage has been significantly depleted in recent years (or decades). It is difficult to rely on in situ groundwater measurements for accurate quantification of large, regional-scale groundwater storage changes, especially at long timescales due to inadequate spatial and temporal coverage of in situ data and uncertainties in storage coefficients. The now nearly 13 years of GRACE gravity data provide a successful and unique complementary tool for monitoring and measuring groundwater changes on a global and regional basis. Despite the successful applications of GRACE in studying global groundwater storage change, there are still some major challenges limiting the application and interpretation of GRACE data. In this paper, we present an overview of GRACE applications in groundwater studies and discuss if and how the main challenges to using GRACE data can be addressed.     

利用广义三角帽方法评估GRACE反演中国大陆地区水储量变化的不确定性

在无真实观测值的情况下,本文利用广义三角帽方法评估了五种GRACE时变重力场模型（CSR、GFZ、GRGS、HUST发布的球谐系数解和JPL发布的Mascon解）反演中国大陆地区2003-2013年水储量变化的不确定性.研究结果表明,CSR、GFZ、JPL、HUST和GRGS反演月水储量变化不确定性的区域平均RMS分别为14.4 mm、26.3 mm、25.3 mm、26.6 mm和56.1 mm,其中GRGS的结果未恢复泄漏信号;在季和年尺度上,模型的不确定性均小于月尺度;扣除周期和趋势信号后,各模型反演结果更为一致.除长江流域外,CSR在13个流域的不确定性均小于其他模型,GRGS反演各流域水储量变化的不确定性通常较大,且可能高估了温带大陆性气候地区水储量的波动;CSR和JPL的不确定性受流域周边水文特征、气候类型、流域面积和形状的影响相对较小,不确定性变化范围分别为2.3~17.1 mm和5.6~22.5 mm,GFZ和HUST受影响较大,不确定性变化范围分别为5.5~35.1 mm和4.0~40.6 mm.本文的研究结果为GRACE产品不确定性评估提供了新的途径,为GRACE时变重力场模型的选取提供参考.     

Research on the diffusion of pore fluid and in-situ hydraulic diffusivity in the epicentral region of Xinfengjiang reservoir earthquakes

According to the fact that the Xinfengjiang reservoir earthquakes are caused mainly by water seepage, this paper using the data ofM _s⩾2. 0 earthquakes, studies the hydraulic diffusivity of the mainshock zone by the expansion of the distribution area of epicenters. It is indicated thatin-situ hydraulic diffusivity during the preshock activity of the Xinfengjiang reservoir region was about 6. 2 m²/s. However, after the main shock, thein-situ hydraulic diffusivity in the main shock region increased by fifty percent, that is to say, to 9. 7 m²/s. During the long period after main shock occurrence thein-situ hydraulic diffusivity was affected by significant anisotropy of the medium and fluctuation of water level. No regularity can be found. In addition, we compare the diffusivity found by experiment with rock samples collected with thein-situ hydraulic diffusivity estimated. It is shown that the diffusivity of rock samples with fractures is about the same as the diffusivity estimatedin-situ. However, the diffusivity of whole rock samples is 3 orders of magnitudes smaller than that estimatedin-situ. Finally, we discuss the limits on the method by the expansion of distribution area of epicenters in the study of reservoir induced seismicity. The Chinese version of this paper appeared in the Chinese edition ofActa Seismologica Sinica,13, 364–371, 1991. This subject is sponsored by the Chinese Joint Seismological Science Foundation.     

Unified macroscopic model for unsaturated water flow in soils of bimodal porosity

Abstract

Natural soils very often contain micro- and macropores, having different hydraulic properties. At the macroscopic scale, the unsaturated flow in such soils can be described with various models, depending on the hydraulic diffusivity ratio of the components and the connectivity of the most conductive component. Three macroscopic models recently derived by the homogenization method are discussed. The limit passages between the models are studied. A unified model suitable for the entire range of the hydraulic diffusivity ratio is proposed. A numerical example shows the application of the model to macroscopically one-dimensional infiltration in a porous medium containing inclusions. A parametric study for varying conductivity (diffusivity) ratio is performed.     

利用GPS和GRACE分析四川地表垂向位移变化

陆地水储量的季节性变化是导致地表周期性负荷形变位移的主要因素,有效地剔除地表位移中的陆地水储量影响,是获取地壳构造垂向运动的必要过程.四川地处青藏高原东边缘,地形分区明显,境内以长江水系为主,水资源丰富,研究四川地区地表负荷形变位移,有助于分析陆地水储量的时空分布特性及地壳构造形变信息.本文利用研究区域内59个CORS站的GPS观测数据,计算了CORS站点的垂向位移,并将其与GRACE所得相应结果进行对比分析.结果显示,GPS和GRACE所得垂向位移时间序列的振幅大小整体相符,但存在明显的相位差.GPS站点振幅最大值为12.7 mm,对应HANY站,最小值为1.5 mm,对应SCMX站.GRACE所得的地表垂向位移振幅大小均为3~4 mm,且最大位移集中出现在7-9月份;而GPS站点出现最大位移的月份和地形相关,东部盆地、西北部高原和南部山地分别出现在7-8月份、10-11月份和10月份.GPS站点时间序列中的周年项与陆地水的季节性变化强相关,为了讨论陆地水储量对GPS站点位移的影响,本文利用改进的总体经验模态分解方法（MEEMD：Modified Ensemble Empirical Mode Decomposition）,从GPS垂向位移时间序列中提取出周年项及约2年的年际变化项.发现利用MEEMD获取的周年项改正原始GPS时间序列时可使其WRMS（Weight Root Mean Square）减少量减小约26%,结果优于最小二乘拟合方法提取的GPS周年项改正效果,验证了MEEMD方法在GPS坐标时间序列处理中的可行性及有效性.     

Integrated evaluation of urban groundwater hydrogeochemistry in context of fractal behaviour of groundwater level fluctuations

The present study was carried out as part of a complex survey of urban groundwater quality and quantity in Szeged, southeast Hungary. The concentrations of 12 inorganic contaminants in 28 shallow groundwater monitoring wells were determined over a 2-year period (2010–2012). The evaluation of concentrations indicates remarkable contamination all over the city. Discriminant analysis (DA) was used to evaluate the spatial changes of groundwater quality. The groundwater levels were measured over a 14-year period (2000–2013). The fractal properties of water level fluctuations time series characterizing the groundwater system and Tisza River were investigated using rescaled range (R/S) analysis. The resulting Hurst exponents clearly showed the persistency and thus long memory effects of both the groundwater and the river flow. Comparison of the results of DA with the results of R/S analysis thus implies that the geological conditions and the changing groundwater quantities are not related to groundwater quality.

EDITOR A. Castellarin

ASSOCIATE EDITOR A. Fiori