Design of backfilled thin-seam coal pillars using earth pressure theory

In underground coal mining any increase in coal recovery rate is dependent on a decrease in pillar size. Backfilling is one way of reducing the required size of pillars and hence the volume of coal left underground. Therefore any comparisons made between a self-supported mine layout and backfill supported mine layout are based directly on pillar design. The most effective way to examine the effect of backfill on pillar support, and subsequently the rate of recovery, would be to incorporate the mechanisms of backfill support directly into the current design procedure for coal pillars. This paper presents a review of the mechanics of backfill support, a method of estimating the magnitude of that support based on earth pressure theory, and an example that incorporates backfill support into current coal pillar design.     

条带煤柱设计的强度准则效应研究

条带开采广泛应用于深部煤层,合理的条带煤柱尺寸对提高煤炭采出率和保护地表地貌都具有十分重要的意义。通过总结平面应变状态下Wilson准则、Mohr-Coulomb(M-C)准则、广义Matsuoka-Nakai(M-N)准则、广义Lade-Duncan(L-D)准则和外接圆Drucker-Prager(D-P)准则等5种强度准则的统一表达式,进而建立条带煤柱的极限强度、屈服宽度和留设宽度的统一计算公式,探究条带煤柱设计的强度准则效应,并得出煤层黏聚力和内摩擦角的影响特性。研究结果表明：建立的统一计算式涵盖文献已有解,且应用非常方便;条带煤柱设计的强度准则效应显著,Wilson准则和M-C准则的结果过于保守,外接圆D-P准则应用需谨慎,应优先选用广义M-N准则或广义L-D准则;煤层黏聚力和内摩擦角对条带煤柱设计的影响明显,应充分考虑煤层的强度参数变化。该研究结果可为条带煤柱的合理设计与施工提供一定的理论指导。     

Yield pillars for stress control in longwall mines — case study

Summary The demand for increased productivity and the problems associated with mining at greater depths have increased the interest in using the yield pillar concept in the United States. This paper summarizes chain pillar behaviour in a mine that historically experienced coal bumps in both room-and-pillar and longwall sections. Results indicate that, generally, the chain pillars yield as designed, but that yielding occurred either after development or with approach of the longwall face. The Bureau of Mines investigated several yield pillar design approaches to possibly explain observed differences in pillar behaviour. These approaches suggest that very localized conditions, such as coal and rock properties, cover depth, and extraction height, may influence the behaviour of any one pillar. At this mine, yielding chain pillars result in de-stressing of the longwall entries and the transfer of potentially dangerous stress concentrations to adjacent panels. Pre-longwall-mining behaviour indicates the existence of a pressure arch, the width of which increases with depth. Results indicate that use of yield pillars improves stress control, reduces bump potential, and increases resource recovery.     

Floor design in underground coal mines

Summary Floor failure and excessive heave in underground coal mines can jeopardize the stability of the whole structure, including the roof and pillars, due to differential settlements and redistribution of stress concentrations. Besides, floor failure is detrimental to haulageway operation and can lead to unacceptable conditions of high deformation. Thus, the design of any underground opening must consider roof/pillar and floor as one structural system.This paper presents guidelines for the design of mine floors, including the necessary field and laboratory investigations and the determination of the bearing capacity of floor strata. The design methodology is based essentially on a modified Hoek-Brown rock mass strength criterion. The main modifications are the introduction of the concept of the point of critical energy release to account for the long term strength, the inclusion of tensile strength and the adoption of a lithostatic state of stress in the rock mass. The determination of the dimensionless parametersm ands result from correlations with the RMR (rock mass rating) of the Geomechanics Clasification. Nine case histories, both in longwall and room and pillar coal mining, were analyzed with the proposed methodology.     

Numerical study of pillar stresses and interaction effects for twin rock caverns

Large underground caverns are increasingly being considered for the construction of industrial facilities and transportation infrastructure in order to optimize the use of surface land in large urban cities. Due to the geological constraints underground, it is sometimes necessary to construct a cavern close to an existing cavern. Pillars serve as an underground support element in twin caverns, without which it is difficult to sustain the weight of the overburden materials. If the strength of a pillar is exceeded, it will fail, and the load that it carried will be transferred and thereby contribute to the collapse of the twin caverns. The lack of confinement in slender pillars also contributes to the complete collapse of pillars at relatively low stress magnitudes. From a design point of view, understanding the pillar failure mechanism and the interaction effect between twin caverns is essential. This paper presents a numerical investigation on the influence of various design parameters on twin cavern interaction. Pillar performances with respect to the changes to the maximum principal stress in the pillar, the peak vertical stress, and the peak principal stress difference in the pillar core are studied in order to examine the failure mechanisms and to identify situations in which there is significant cavern interaction and overlap of the plastic zones. Copyright © 2014 John Wiley & Sons, Ltd.     

Stability evaluation method for hyperbolic coal pillars under the coupling effects of high temperature and ground stress

We studied an underground coal gasification technique using strip mining-face mining gasifier controlled retraction injection technology (SMFM). This green mining approach offers several advantages over conventional strip mining but the stress distribution and stability of SMFM operations remain largely untested. In particular, hyperbolic coking pillars are used in SMFM compared with rectangular pillars used in traditional strip mining, which can influence the ultimate bearing capacity and stability. We use numerical simulations to investigate the influence of different factors (arch height, pillar height and width, mechanical characteristics), under the coupling effect of high temperature, on the ultimate bearing capacity of hyperbolic pillars. Our results indicate that arch height has a strong influence on pillar stress, while changes in pillar width and height are less significant. A stability evaluation method is proposed and tested on a case study in Inner Mongolia. Our theoretical results have practical significance for the promotion and application of SMFM.     

A numerical investigation of rock pillar failure mechanism in underground openings

The study of rock pillar failure mechanisms is an issue that is faced routinely in mining and civil industries. In mining operation, the establishment of several mining levels is often necessary to ensure adequate production. This result in the formation of pillars that must be recovered under often high stress conditions at later stages of excavation. It is, therefore, beneficial to develop guidelines that can be used in the design of rock pillars. The aim of this paper is to delve into the mechanisms involved in pillar failure as well as to investigate the non-linear behavior of rock pillars. An extensive numerical analysis was carried out to study the pillar deformation and failure process under natural loading conditions. Effects of pillar geometry and pillar strength parameters on pillar behavior were investigated for hard rock material typical of Canadian mining conditions. Numerical data were compared against field data recorded in Canadian mines. A fairly good match was achieved between numerical and field data and the conducted analysis can be used as a qualitative guideline in the design of rock pillars in underground structures.     

细长窄煤柱破坏机理的数值分析

对特厚煤层条件下采用螺旋钻机开采细长窄煤柱的破坏过程进行了数值模拟。模拟结果再现了开采过程中煤柱破坏发生、发展直至塑性区贯通破坏的全过程,并从应力场演化分析了煤柱破坏过程的应力分布特征及破坏机理。     

A Comparative Analysis of Pillar Design Methods and its Application to Marble Mines

Summary. The methods for designing pillars in underground mines are fundamentally based on empirical formulae that do not take into account the quality of the rock mass as an input parameter. This makes them difficult to apply in other types of ground that are different to those used to establish each empirical formula. To avoid this inconvenience, the present paper examines existing empirical formulae to then propose a modification of these formulae adjusting the resistance of the pillars on the basis of the RMR (Bieniawski’s Rock Mass Rating). The compression safety factor of the pillars is analyzed for each modified formula and a study is carried out of shear failure if planes of weakness exist in the pillars. Finally, the safety factors of the pillars in a marble mine situated in Alicante (Southern Spain) were calculated in order to validate the new formulae. From the results obtained, it is concluded that this new formulation determines the safety factor of pillars of the mine with greater reliability, provided that the pillars are isolated. At the same time, the introduction of the RMR in the formulae results in a better fit of the strength of each pillar to the characteristics of the rock mass.     

Numerical modelling-based pillar strength estimation for an increased height of extraction

Underground extraction of total thickness of a thick coal seam in single lift by bord and pillar method increases pillar height during retreat. Field studies found that the increase in pillar height affects the depillaring operation adversely, especially, during caving of the strong/massive roof strata. Dilution in strength due to the increased pillar height caused catastrophic failure of barrier pillars and goaf overriding. This warrants a systematic study of pillar strength variation for the different heights of pillar. A review of different pillar strength estimation approaches for an analysis of the dilution in strength of the heightened pillar suggested that numerical modelling provides a better option for such a systematic study. Accordingly, investigations are conducted on simulated models in laboratory adopting a recognised numerical modelling procedure. The observed nature of variations in pillar strengths with the increase in its height in the numerical models and empirical formula is found to be matched. But a mismatch is found between the strength values of the two approaches with an increase in height of the pillar. Considering validity of the empirical formulation in Indian coalfields, a relationship is developed to incorporate a correction in the strength values of the numerical models. The suggested correction on the basis of this simple study of the pillar strength variation would be helpful for the use of the established simulation tool during the depillaring of a thick coal seam.     

Ultimate bearing capacity and settlement of coal pillar sub-strata

Summary This paper develops a rational approach for design of coal pillars under weak floor strata conditions considering ultimate bearing capacity (UBC) as well as pillar settlement. An approximate solution is presented for estimation of UBC for a shallow foundation on a two-layered rock system with consideration of both cohesion (c) and (ø) for both layers. Similarly, deformability underneath a full-size pillar is estimated from deformability calculated from plate loading tests. The effect of adjacent pillars on UBC and deformability of coal pillars in a panel is considered using foundation engineering analysis techniques. The design of pillars based on limiting settlements considers both differential settlements as well as mean settlement of pillar in a panel. An attempt is made to validate the proposed design approach based on field data and observations at an Illinois mine.     

Design and Application of Underground Mine Paste Backfill Technology

This paper reviews the design and application of paste backfill in underground hard rock mines used as ground support for pillars and walls, to help prevent caving and roof falls, and to enhance pillar recovery for improved productivity. Arching after stope filling reduces vertical stress and increases horizontal stress distribution within the fill mass. It is therefore important to determine horizontal stress on stope sidewalls using various predictive models in the design of paste backfill. Required uniaxial compressive strength (UCS) for paste backfill depends on the intended function, such as vertical roof support, development opening within the backfill, pillar recovery, ground or pillar support, and working platform. UCS design models for these functions are given. Laboratory and backfill plant scale designs for paste backfill mix design and optimization are presented, with emphasis on initial tailings density control to prevent under-proportioning of binder content. Once prepared, paste backfill is transported (or pumped) and placed underground by pipeline reticulation. The governing elements of paste backfill transport are rheological factors such as shear yield stress, viscosity, and slump height (consistency). Different models (analytical, semi-empirical, and empirical) are given to predict the rheological factors of paste backfill (shear yield stress and viscosity). Following backfill placement underground, self-weight consolidation settlement, internal pressure build-up, the arching effect, shrinkage, stope volume, and wall convergence against backfill affect mechanical integrity. An erratum to this article can be found at     

Soft rock pillars

Summary Soft rock pillars can be designed by several methods available in the mining literature. All of these methods include the effect of shape, or geometry, on the average strength of specimens and pillars. All of the pillar design methods include some measurement of the strength of specimens of the pillar rock. The most common rock specimen strength property measured is the unconfined compressive strength. However, the average strength of triaxially confined rock specimens is much greater than the unconfined specimen strength, which can be more important to pillar strength. The estimation of the strength of a pillar is complicated by the decrease in rock specimen strength with increase in specimen size.Editor's note: In common with North American engineering practise, the paper uses English units throughout, where feasible conversions are included in the text. Where not, the following factors may be used: 1 inch=25.4 mm; 1 ft=0.3048 m; 1 lbf/in.^–2=6.895 kn/m^–2; 1Tonf.=8.896 kN.     

Numerical Study of Failure Mechanism of Serial and Parallel Rock Pillars

Using a numerical modelling code, rock failure process analysis, 2D, the progressive failure process and associated acoustic emission behaviour of serial and parallel rock samples were simulated. Both serial- and parallel sample models are presented for investigating the mechanism of rock pillar failure. As expected, the numerical results show that not only the stiffness, but also the uniaxial compressive strength of the rock plays an important role in pillar instability. For serial pillars, the elastic rebound of a rock pillar with higher uniaxial compressive strength can lead to the sudden failure of an adjacent rock pillar with lower uniaxial compressive strength. The failure zone forms and develops in the pillar with lower uniaxial compressive strength; however, the failure zone does not pass across the interface of the two pillars. In comparison, when two pillars have the same uniaxial compressive strengths but different elastic moduli, both serial pillars fail, and the failure zone in the two pillars can interact, passing across the interface and entering the other pillar. For parallel pillars, damage always develops in the pillar having the lower uniaxial compressive strength or lower elastic modulus. Furthermore, in accordance with the Kaiser effect, the stress-induced damage in a rock pillar is irreversible, and only when the previous stress state in the failed rock pillar is exceeded or the subsequent applied energy is larger than the energy released by the external loading will further damage continue to occur. In addition, the homogeneity index of rock also can affect the failure modes of parallel pillars, even though the uniaxial compressive strength and stiffness of each pillar are the same.     

Probabilistic analysis of underground pillar stability

The majority of geotechnical analyses are deterministic, in that the inherent variability of the materials is not modelled directly, rather some ‘factor of safety’ is applied to results computed using ‘average’ properties. In the present study, the influence of spatially varying strength is assessed via numerical experiments involving the compressive strength and stability of pillars typically used in underground construction and mining operations. The model combines random field theory with an elasto‐plastic finite element algorithm in a Monte‐Carlo framework. It is found that the average strength of the rock is not a good indicator of the overall strength of the pillar. The results of this study enable traditional approaches involving factors of safety to be re‐interpreted as a ‘probability of failure’ in the context of reliability based design. Copyright © 2002 John Wiley & Sons, Ltd.     

Research on reasonable coal pillar width of roadway driven along goaf in deep mine

Driving roadway along a goaf is commonly adopted for mining face of thick seam in a deep mine. Determining a reasonable width of coal pillar is a key scientific problem for driving roadway along a goaf in a deep mine. The paper took a roadway driven along a goaf at Zhaolou coal mine which is a typical kilometer-deep mine in China as engineering background. Field monitoring, model test, and numerical experiment are conducted. Stress and displacement evolution mechanism are analyzed with different pillar widths. The test results show that with the increase of coal pillar width, the peak stress value at the coal pillar working slope and integrated coal beside the roadway increases firstly and then tends to be stable, its position is transferred to the side of the roadway, and the deformation of coal pillar decreases gradually during roadway excavation. The coal pillar deformation and roadway vertical displacement increased as the coal pillar width increases under high abutment pressure. In order to reduce the waste of non-renewable resources and meet the requirements of bearing capacity and stability of coal pillars, a method is proposed for setting a reasonable width of coal pillars and the specific width of coal pillars is designed and applied in engineering practices based on the above research. All the tests are significant in the study of driving roadway along a goaf in a deep mine.     

Responses of roof and pillars of underground coal mines to vibration induced by adjacent open-pit blasting

Investigations were carried out at seven underground coal mines in India to characterise the responses of roof and pillars of underground workings to the vibrations induced by adjacent open-pit blasting. The roof rocks of the selected underground instrumented panels were having RMR between 36.7 to 57. Monitoring of strata behaviour was carried out before and after blasts. Arrangements were made to mount the transducers of seismographs in roof and pillars to monitor the vibration. Attempts were made to monitor the vibration simultaneously, for a blast, in the pillar and at the junction of the roof or away from the junction in the gallery. 102 sets of such vibration data were recorded in the underground mines. It was observed that the roof of underground roadways vibrated with higher peak particle velocity (PPV) compared to pillars. The amplification of vibration in the roof compared to pillars, away from the junction, was 1.02 to 2.58 times whereas at the junctions, it was 2.04 to 5.57 times.     

武宁县煤矿矿山地质灾害发育现状及防治措施

江西省武宁县煤矿多属小型矿山,但小煤矿的开采同样会引起诸多矿山地质灾害问题,如废石乱堆乱放,诱发泥石流;不规范开采,造成区域地下水位下降,引起地面沉降、塌陷和矿井冒顶、突水、瓦斯爆炸等,这些问题需要评估和解决。对上述问题进行成因分析、危害性探讨,并针对每项矿山地质灾害问题提出相应的防治措施,可使该区地质灾害得到有效的控制。     

Risk considerations for crown pillar stability assessment for mine closure planning

Evaluation of the long-term surface stability of crown pillars overlying underground mines is an important component of mine closure planning. The definition of a crown pillar, as well as a brief discussion of the assessment of the probability and consequence of crown pillar failure are given in this paper. Techniques for stability assessment using mechanistic, empirical and numerical simulation techniques are discussed. Consequence assessment is discussed, but is still subjective and difficult to quantify. Where crown pillars are suspected to be marginally stable or unstable either at the time of the investigation or over the long term, and where the consequence of failure is medium to high, the closure plan for the site must include proposed rehabilitation alternatives. Selection of the optimum solution depends largely upon financial considerations, but also upon the common public expectation that the result of mine closure planning be a permanent solution that does not restrict public access or future land use on the site.     

龙游石窟3-2号岩柱变形破坏对3号洞应力变化的影响

作为具有大跨度、超浅埋等特点的千年古地下洞室群,龙游石窟吸引着众多前来研究的岩石力学家和工程地质学家。近些年来,龙游石窟的3号洞顶板多处出现了开裂和离层。安装在3-1号岩柱周围起支撑洞室作用钢柱上的应变片数值也发生了变化。据分析,这些现象出现的一个重要原因是3-2号岩柱强度降低引起洞室围岩受力条件的改变。利用FLAC3D数值软件,借鉴强度折减法,对3-2号岩柱强度降低引起上述变化的情况进行了模拟。数值模拟的结果可以较好地解释上述现象。在此基础上,进一步对3号洞顶板和其他岩柱的应力变化等进行了数值分析。结果表明:①3-2号岩柱的强度已有所下降,并有继续降低的趋势;②随着3-2号岩柱强度的降低,顶板的裂缝将不断增长、增多。其结果可为3-2号岩柱强度降低过程中洞室围岩力学行为的科学分析、预测及石窟的保护等提供依据。