Geoarchaeological studies in Nara,Japan: The integrated findings

In this article, the authors summarize 20 years of scholarship and two field projects on geoarchaeology in Nara, Japan, carried out by researchers from 12 different institutions in 4 countries. The research goal was to test an aerial photographic reconstruction of surface landforms in the Nara Basin with subsurface data. Project A was conducted at Asawa; it tested, through geological coring, whether a suspected swampy backmarsh in the eastern basin existed and whether it would yield data on the transition to wet rice agriculture in the mid‐1st millennium B.C. Project B was conducted at Miwa; it tested, through geological coring and subsequent excavation, the nature of upland agricultural terrace formation in the southeastern basin and whether the suspected existence of a 4th‐century palace site could be confirmed. Two layers of carbonaceous clay at Asawa were dated to the Early (˜5000–3500 B.C.) and Final (˜1000‐300 B.C.) phases of the Jomon period. Pollen data revealed the establishment of an evergreen oak forest from 5,000 years ago and anthropogenic changes in forest cover from 2,000 years ago. Phytoliths from rice, millets, reeds, and bamboo were recovered in layers postdating the Final Jomon carbonaceous clay. A fault scarp with anthropogenic modification of the terraces was identified at Miwa. It was discovered that an incised stream valley had been infilled in the Medieval period at the same time surface layers were razed; the front of the terrace was extended in the premodern period. Remains were recovered from the Middle Yayoi (˜100 B.C.–A.D. 100) and the Medieval (˜A.D. 1185–1603) periods. However, as the terracing involved razing the early historic levels, no data were recovered on the alleged 4th‐century palace site. The significance of these findings lies in the identification of (a) a swampy backmarsh at Asawa, where initial agricultural efforts in growing wet rice in the basin may have occurred, confirming the aerial photographic reconstruction; and (b) hillside terracing activities at Miwa, from the Medieval period onwards, which have radically changed the configuration of the natural topography. © 2005 Wiley Periodicals, Inc.     

Alluvial geoarchaeology of an ephemeral stream: Implications for Holocene landscape change in the central part of the Ebro Depression,northeast Spain

La Virgen is an ephemeral tributary of the Ebro River in northeast Spain with a complex alluvial sequence. We analyzed alluvial stratigraphy to develop a model of Holocene fluvial evolution for La Virgen and infer causes of floodplain dynamics. Three alluvial terraces were mapped and described using a combination of geoarchaeological and geomorphological techniques. Stratigraphic ages were estimated using ¹⁴C dating and archaeological remains. Sedimentation in the valley floor commenced in the Neolithic period ca. 6000 BC and continued during the Bronze and Iron ages (ca. 1800–500 BC), the Iberian and Roman periods (ca. 500 BC–AD 500), and the Middle Ages (ca. AD 500–1500). The main terrace (N3) is 14m thick and predominantly composed of sand, silt, and clay that we believe are derived from local hillslopes and represent a long period of human‐induced soil erosion that intensified during the Bronze and Iron ages until the Late Roman period. © 2010 Wiley Periodicals, Inc.     

云南怒江丙中洛河段第三级阶地 10Be暴露年龄

宇宙成因核素可用于河流阶地测年,然而保存于阶地面上的漂砾暴露年龄是否能代表其形成年代还缺乏深入研究。应用宇宙成因核素 10Be对怒江丙中洛河段第三级阶地上的花岗岩漂砾进行测年研究,结果显示继承性组分可以忽略,而风化侵蚀将对其暴露年龄产生较大影响。基于采集自第三级阶地保存较好的基岩中石英脉样品,应用有效暴露年龄、暴露时间与风化速率间的关系图解出花岗岩漂砾的风化速率为0.3cm/ka,并据此得到第三级阶地的形成年代大约为150~203ka。     

A contribution to Pleistocene chronology in southeast Essex,England

Parallel to the Essex coast north of the mouth of the Thames, a series of gravel spreads ranging in altitude from near sea level westward to more than 200 ft O.D. (mean sea level) proved to be the remnants of an abandoned Thames/Medway terrace system, rather than a series of “raised” beaches, as their location had suggested. The seaward side of the ancient river valley has subsequently been “captured” by subsidence.Evidence is given for five terraces, with surface levels between 5 and 75 ft O.D. Because of subsidence of the Essex coast, the terrace levels are not easily correlatable with either the Thames or Medway terrace levels. Temporal placement is attempted on the basis of one site in the 25 ft Barling terrace, which yielded a Middle Acheulian archaeological assemblage associated with a cool temperate fauna including an early form of mammoth. An ice wedge cast in the Barling terrace was filled with floodloam which weathered to a parabraunerde soil during an interglacial climate warmer than now. For these reasons man is thought to have lived on the floodplain of the Barling terrace either at the onset of the Wolstonian (Riss) glacial or during an interstadial of that stage. The question of possible linkages between Swanscombe and Clacton terraces is discussed.     

郧县前坊村剖面黄土-古土壤序列风化成壤及古气候研究

秦岭作为我国南方和北方地理、气候、自然环境的天然分界线,并当作是黄土高原的南屏障。汉江上游谷地地区位于秦岭南侧,属于北亚热带气候区域,受季风气候活动影响强烈。为了探讨该地区在亚热带气候背景下,风成黄土成壤改造对气候变化的响应机制,通过对汉江上游谷地前坊村（QFC）剖面磁化率、烧失量、粒度、Rb/Sr等理化性质进行研究。结果表明:①末次冰期以来沙尘暴很有可能越过秦岭在其南侧堆积,黄土-古土壤剖面地层序列从上到下依次为:MS-L₀-S₀-Lt-L₁-AD;这些沉积物完整记录了一级阶地上晚更新世气候变化信息,地层单元受到各个时期不同程度成壤强度的改造。②前坊村剖面中,理化性质在不同地层单元有显著差异。例如磁化率、烧失量、Rb/Sr指标平均含量的高值出现在古土壤层中,低值出现在黄土层;而Zr/Rb含量变化正好相反;这些理化性质表明,在古土壤发育期,水热条件进入最适宜期,沉积物的风化成壤作用显著;在黄土堆积期,气候寒冷干燥,主要以粉尘堆积为主,沉积物的风化成壤作用较弱。③秦岭南侧北亚热带汉江上游前坊村一级阶地剖面化学风化强度变化揭示了黄土-古土壤环境气候变化的规律:末次冰期以来（大约18.0～11.5 ka B.P.）,气候干冷,沙尘暴频繁出现,沉积物以黄土堆积为主,成壤作用微弱,形成马兰黄土（L₁）;全新世早期（约11.5～8.5 ka B.P.）,气候由干冷向暖湿方向转变,但主要以干冷为主,形成过渡层（Lt）;在全新世大暖期（8.5～3.1 ka B.P.）,气候条件达到最优阶段,水热配合较好,生物活动活跃,成壤作用十分显著,发育了古土壤S₀;到了全新世晚期以来（3.1 ka B.P.）气候又由暖湿向干冷方向转变,成壤作用明显减弱,沙尘暴出现较为频繁,形成了以黄土堆积为主的全新世黄土（L₀）。现代表土层（MS）是在（1.5 ka B.P.）以来气候转暖,加之人类长期农业耕作扰动,在全新世黄土L₀顶部叠加而形成的。     

The paleoclimatic interpretation of clay minerals in soils and weathering profiles

The interpretation of paleoclays for paleoclimatic purposes is based on five major assumptions: (1) clay mineral formation is directly related to climatic parameters; (2) once formed in the weathering milieu, clay minerals are stable and do not change any more as long as the climate remains stable (pre-burial stability); (3) clay mineral assemblages are uniform throughout the weathering profile; (4) once formed or deposited and buried, clay minerals are stable (post-burial stability); (5) the sensitivity of clay minerals towards environmental factors is uniform. All these assumptions have only a limited validity. Clay mineral formation is in few cases directly related to climatic parameters, nor do clay minerals always represent the stable end products in equilibrium with environmental factors. The vertical distribution pattern of authigenically formed clay minerals is seldom monomineralic. Post-depositional changes are not infrequent. The sensitivity of clay minerals to environmental factors is variable. The use of paleoclays occurring in paleosols and weathering profiles is reviewed. Paleoclays occurring in paleosols or weathering profiles are, in well-defined situations, suitable for paleoclimatic interpretation. At our present state of knowledge, references as to the nature of climates of the past that are based solely on the interpretation of paleoclays are warranted only in exceptional cases. Authigenic occurrences of clay minerals with limited stability fields that can be used as ‘marker minerals’ and the isotopic composition of paleoclay minerals promise, with future research, to increase the value of paleoclays as paleoclimatic indicators.     

Soil stratigraphy and plant–soil interactions on a Late Glacial–Holocene fluvial terrace sequence,Sierra Nevada National Park,northern Venezuelan Andes

Analysis of a flight of alluvial terraces in the Sierra Nevada National Park near Pico Mucuñuque in the Eastern Mérida Andes has yielded information on geomorphic, pedogenic, and vegetational changes from Late Glacial time to the present. The terraces formed in large part due to stream incision/migration triggered by neotectonic uplift (>7000 yr BP) of a Late Glacial/Early Holocene glaciolacustrine lithosequence and, with the exception of the oldest/highest terrace, exhibit near-uniform lithology/parent materials. Soils developed in the terrace materials range from thin, weakly developed profiles (O/C/Cu horizons) to Entisols with O/Ah/Cox/Cu horizons and similar buried counterparts representing former short periods of floodplain stability or slow aggradation. The buried soils provide organic-rich material that yields radiocarbon ages, which provide time constraints on individual pedons and the geomorphic development of the site. Iron and aluminum extracts of soil matrix material provide information on the formation and accumulation of goethite and hematite, the relative accumulation of ferrihydrite (gain/loss), and the downward translocation of organically complexed Al as a function of soil development and age. SEM analysis of heavy mineral grains indicates varying material sources and degrees of weathering in the soil chronosequence. A qualitative study of plant functional types across the terrace sequence shows that older surfaces support greater plant diversity. The study also suggests ways in which the plant communities influence soil development at the site through varying organic matter inputs and varying soil moisture use by specific species (e.g., ferns on the oldest terrace), which may explain the absence of B horizons in the Late Pleistocene/Early Holocene soils.     

江西石城盆地白垩纪地层中成壤特征及古环境分析

白垩纪丹霞红层广泛分布于中国各地,长期被认为是在氧化条件下山间盆地河流湖泊环境中形成,其红色为后期次生氧化所致。本文以武夷山山脉中段西麓江西石城盆地一套白垩纪丹霞红层层序为研究对象,选取盆地中建上村（JSC）、工业园（GYY）和花园村（HYC）3个地点,分别进行详细野外特征观测、采样室内测量、微形态和地球化学分析。HYC红层剖面由粗大砾石和细小砂土混杂堆积,分选差,发育层理但并非完全连续,部分地层之下发育钙结核甚至钙板,属干旱区山间盆地边缘相季节河流沉积;而JSC和GYY两剖面均为质地较均匀的红色粉砂粘土,发育钙结核层或钙质淀积层,属干旱区远离洪积山口的盆地相对中心沉积或者长期高出水面台地的风成沉积序列。各剖面粘化层底部均发现淋溶淀积形成的钙积层（钙板层或钙结核层）;微形态样品显示有粘土充填的根孔,孔隙壁发育红色粘土和胶体,呈光性定向排列,存在成壤碳酸盐多次淋溶淀积成的多层CaCO3结构,均指示成土发生过程;粒度特征显示粘粒含量高（<2μm含量为10.94%）,粒径大小集中分布于2~63μm之间,占65.25%,整体特征与黄土古土壤沉积颗粒相似;石城红层样品存在不同程度元素富集和亏损特征,其中JSC剖面样品常量元素的CIA指数均值为72.95,指示该红层经历了比陕西洛川黄土和甘肃西峰红粘土更强的化学风化,而且地层的红色随地层层理/层次发生深浅变化,是原生颜色,指示沉积物是地表氧化环境,因此认为石城白垩纪红色粘土层与黄土高原第四纪古土壤或新近纪红粘土类似,是长期地表干热氧化环境下形成的红色古土壤。在此基础上,可以根据土壤钙结核发育状况与降水量之间关系、钙结核淀积深度与降水量之间关系、土壤碳酸盐层出现的深度与降水量之间关系和常量元素CIW与降水量之间关系来重建古降水量。     

Interpreting the response of a dryland river system to Late Quaternary climate change

A U-series calcrete chronology has been constructed for three Late Quaternary terrace units, termed the D1, D2 and D3 terraces in age descending order, from the Rio Aguas river system of the Sorbas basin, southeast Spain. The D1 terrace formed between 30,300±4400 year BP and 12,140±360 year BP, correlating well with the Last Glacial Maximum when rates of sediment supply would have increased greatly, because of higher rates of weathering, reduced vegetation cover and weak soil development. The D2 terrace formed between 12,800±1100 year BP and 9,600±530 year BP, correlating well with the Younger Dryas event. The D3 terrace could only be poorly constrained to the early Holocene and no unequivocal cause could be assigned to this period of aggradation. The sedimentology and geomorphology of the D2 terrace suggests, however, that the aggradation of this unit was a response to diapirism/karstic processes occurring within the underlying Messinian gypsum strata and the subsequent damming of the Aguas system. Therefore, despite its coincident occurrence with the Younger Dryas, aggradation of the D2 terrace is unrelated to climate change. The style of this response, controlled predominantly by the characteristics of the underlying bedrock, makes correlating the terrace record of the Aguas with other systems in the Mediterranean unreliable. This study, therefore, highlights the problems of correlating fluvial sequences in regions of variable tectonics, climatic history and bedrock geology and emphasises the need to properly understand the main controls on individual fluvial systems before any attempt is made to correlate their depositional histories.     

中国黄土中古土壤的发生学研究

应用形态学、微形态学、化学和矿物学研究了中国黄土中古土壤的发生学性状和成土过程。离石黄土(中更新世)中古土壤为发育程度(碳酸盐淋溶和粘化)不同的褐土型土壤。马兰黄土(晚更新世)中为生草过程强和粘化过程稍弱的灰褐土型土壤。全新世黄土中为碳酸盐淋溶和粘化过程均弱的弱度发育的碳酸盐灰褐土型土壤。午城黄土(早更新世)中可能是棕褐土。本文还探讨了黄土中古土壤在时间和空间上的演替和分类问题。     

Quaternary stratigraphy and geoarchaeology of the colorado and concho rivers,west texas

Geoarchaeological investigations in an area surrounding the confluence of the upper Colorado and Concho Rivers, Edwards Plateau of West Texas, have produced a detailed landscape evolution model which provides a framework for discussion of the influences of geomorphic processes on the development, preservation, and visibility of the archaeological record. Field mapping within the study area has differentiated six allostrati-graphic units of fluvial origin in both valleys, as well as extensive eolian sand sheets along the Colorado River. Early to middle Pleistocene terrace remnants cap many upland areas, whereas two distinct late Pleistocene terrace surfaces are widespread within the study area at somewhat lower elevations. Fluvial activity during the time period of human occupation is represented by an extensive Holocene terrace and underlying valley fill, which is up to 11 m in thickness. Valley fill sediments can be subdivided into allostratigraphic units of early to middle Holocene (ca. 10,000–5000 yr B.P.) and late Holocene age (ca. 4600–1000 yr B.P.), which are separated by a buried soil profile. The modern incised channels and very narrow floodplains represent the last millennium. Eolian sand sheets of early to middle Holocene age overlie limestone- and shale-dominated uplands, Pleistocene terraces, and in some cases the Holocene valley fill along the Colorado River. Pleistocene terraces have been stable features in the landscape and available for settlement through the time period of human occupation. Archaeological materials of all ages occur at the surface, and the record preserved in individual sites range from that associated with discrete periods of activity to longer-term palimpsests that represent repeated use over millennia. Sites within early to middle Holocene and late Holocene fills represent short-term utilization of constructional floodplains during the Paleoindian through early Archaic and middle to late Archaic time periods respectively. By contrast, those that occur along the buried soil profile developed in the early to middle Holocene fill record middle to late Archaic cultural activity on stable terrace surfaces, and represent relatively discrete periods of activity to longer-term palimpsests that represent repeated use over the 3000–4000 years of subaerial exposure. Late Prehistoric sites occur as palimpsests on soils developed in late Holocene alluvium or stratified within modern floodplain facies. Paleoindian through Late Prehistoric sites occur stratified within eolian sand sheets or along the unconformity with subjacent fluvial deposits. The landscape evolution model from the upper Colorado and Concho Rivers is similar to that developed for other major valley axes of the Edwards Plateau. This model may be regionally applicable, and can be used to interpret the geomorphic setting and natural formation processes for already known sites, as well as provide an organizational framework for systematic surface and subsurface survey for new archaeological records. 0 1992 John Wiley & Sons, Inc.     

Synchrotron-based X-ray study of iron oxide transformations in terraces from the Tinto-Odiel river system: Influence on arsenic mobility

Simultaneous analysis of micro-X-ray diffraction (μ-XRD) and micro-X-ray fluorescence (μ-XRF) based on synchrotron light sources, and electron microprobe (EMP) analyses, were performed on iron terrace samples taken from Tinto-Odiel river system from the Iberian Pyrite Belt (IBP, SW Iberian Peninsula). Iron terraces are formed during the oxidation and precipitation of dissolved iron along the riverbeds impacted by acid mine drainage (AMD). This paper includes the study of actively-forming current terraces and fossil terraces isolated from the stream courses due to the river migration over time. The results of the study of current terrace samples from AMD-affected streams of two IPB abandoned mines (Tinto Santa Rosa and Cueva de la Mora) showed that fresh precipitates at the surface are composed primarily of metastable schwertmannite, which is gradually transformed at depth over short-time scales into goethite. Sediments of ancient terraces are composed mainly of goethite, which most likely originated from the re-crystallization of a precursor schwertmannite. However, at century-time scale, goethite partially re-crystallizes to hematite due to diagenetic processes. The transformation rate of goethite into hematite is negatively correlated with grain size and the crystallinity of goethite. Moreover, this transformation is accompanied by an increase in grain size and a decrease in surface area of hematite, and a concomitant decrease in arsenic trapped in the solid. This increase in the arsenic mobility during the diagenetic maturation should be considered in the development of conceptual and analytical models describing long-term fate, transport and bioavailability of arsenic in environmental systems.     

Paleohydraulic interpretation of Quaternary alluvium near Golden,Colorado

Quaternary terraces and pediments along Ralston Creek and Clear Creek, near Golden, Colorado, are associated with Verdos, Slocum, Louviers, and Broadway Alluviums. Terrace deposits can be locally correlated on the basis of elevation and relict paleosols. The terrace sediments probably represent aggradation by braided streams flowing from glaciated drainage basins. Engineering hydraulic calculation procedures suggest that flood flows were 2–3 m deep on steep gradients (0.008–0.01). Discharges were as great as 1400 m³/sec, nearly an order of magnitude greater than modern flood discharges. The most useful paleohydraulic calculation techniques were found to be the dimensionless shear approach applied to stream competence and bedload function theory applied to stream capacity.     

Paleosols and their relevance to Precambrian atmospheric composition

Various paleosols have been reported from within the Witwatersrand and Ventersdorp Supergroups, South Africa. They were studied in an attempt to constrain the amount of oxygen available in the atmosphere during deposition of the gold- and uranium-bearing Witwatersrand conglomerates. The majority of these horizons do not have any physical characteristics of paleosols, and none of them have a chemistry consistent with weathering, suggesting they have been subjected to modification by later alteration processes. A similar chemistry, indicating overprinting of any original soil chemistry, has been reported from paleosols elsewhere (Elliot Lake region, Canada; Hekpoort basalt, South Africa), but it does not appear that significant cognizance has been taken of this fact when using these paleosols to determine the composition of the Precambrian atmosphere. It is concluded here that characteristics previously attributed to Precambrian weathering in an oxygen-deficient atmosphere are better explained by post-burial, hydrothermal alteration along lithological contacts.     

Palaeoenvironmental reconstruction of a glaciotectonized Early and Middle Pleistocene land surface, palaeosol and river sediments: Great Sampford, Suffolk, England

Glaciotectonized sediments and palaeosol at Great Sampford, western Suffolk, England are reconstructed to their original positions in order to determine the form of the original land surface and the associated soil development. The restored stratigraphy consists of Early Pleistocene Kesgrave Sands and Gravels which were deposited by the 'pre-glacial' river Thames, with the Early-Middle Pleistocene Valley Farm Soil developed on a terrace surface. These units are overlain by Sampford Deformation Till and Lowestoft Till, which were formed during the Middle Pleistocene Anglian glaciation. The micromorphological features of the reconstructed soil are interpreted in terms of three climatic cycles, each comprising a period of temperate climate soil formation followed by cold climate soil disruption. The final stage of disruption is associated with the periglacial climate that preceded Anglian glacierization. This pedological reconstruction is the most complex yet recognized from British Early and Middle Pleistocene palaeosols and provides an insight into major climatic oscillations prior to the Anglian Glaciation. The surface upon which the soil developed is one of the oldest terraces of the 'pre-glacial' River Thames that were formed when this river flowed northwards through East Anglia.     

宣城第四纪红色粘土剖面的发育特征

宣城第四纪红色粘土14层土体硅铝率、风化淋溶系数,以及阳离子交换量、盐基饱和 度和粘粒含量等风化、成土作用指标表明,该剖面各层次之间仅显示出一定程度沉积作用和成土作用的差别。它们是边沉积边成土作用的产物。上覆lm左右厚下蜀黄土,且由均质红土层、铁锰焦斑层和网纹层构成的宣城第四纪红色粘土应归属于埋藏类型古土壤。     

黄河晋陕峡谷1.1 Ma阶地的形成及其构造背景*

对黄河晋陕峡谷河曲、黑峪口、延水关和壶口等4个地区进行了详细的野外考察。河曲地区共发现3级河流阶地,更高的则为唐县期宽谷;唐县期宽谷的海拔高度约1000m(拔河高度150m),而3级河流阶地的拔河高度分别约为110m、80m和12m。黑峪口地区也存在唐县期宽谷,宽谷之下发育5级河流阶地,唐县期宽谷西高东低,海拔高度位于970m和940m之间,5级河流阶地的拔河高度分别约为130m,80m、50m、12m和4m。延水关地区共发现6级河流阶地,全部为第四纪期间形成,6级河流阶地的拔河高度分别为180m、130m、95m、50m、20m和4m。壶口地区共存在8级阶地,也全部为第四纪期间的阶地,阶地的拔河高度分别约为260m、210m、180m、120m、80m、60m、35m和15m。对壶口最高阶地进行了地层学研究,发现这一阶地上覆厚度约110m的黄土地层,黄土层的最底部为L13,古地磁研究结果和古土壤断代都指示了这一阶地的形成时间在距今1.1Ma左右。综合晋陕峡谷地区现有的研究结果认为,3.3Ma之前,鄂尔多斯地块内部构造极为稳定,发育了唐县期夷平面,古黄河在此夷平面上主要以侧蚀拓宽为主,下蚀极其微弱;3.3-1.1Ma,鄂尔多斯地块的构造稳定可能被打破,黄河小幅度下切;而1.1Ma以来,受鄂尔多斯地块快速抬升的影响,黄河发生剧烈下切,1.1 Ma阶地和晋陕峡谷的主体在这一时期形成。     

Holocene soil chronoassociation in part of the Middle Gangetic Plain: morphological and micromorphological characteristics

Systematic variations in soil characteristics related to degree of soil profile development in part of the Middle Gangetic Plain suggest a soil chronoassociation similar to the soil chronosequences observed on some river terrace formed by tectonic uplift. This chronoassociation has five members QG1 to QG5, the youngest being QG1 (< 500 yr BP). Variations in degree of horizon differentiation, profile thickness, clay accumulation, plasma separation, argillan thickness, weathering stage and day mineralogy have been used to determine the degree of soil development.
Pedogenic processes active in these soils are decalcification, translocation of clay, sesquioxide and organic matter, plasma separation and weathering of minerals. The amount and variability of clay minerals are significantly related to the type and duration of pedogenesis in different parts of the area. The oldest soils with pedogenic calcite (10 000 yr BP) developed during a dry period. Since 8000 yr BP climatic conditions of higher rainfall and better drainage have prevailed in the area.
Neotectonic movements have tilted the Gandak megafan block and have caused shifting of the Gandak river to the east about 105 km from its original course, leaving behind numerous channels, ponds, lakes and other features of impeded drainage.     

甘肃西峰晚第三纪红粘土的化学组成及化学风化特征

通过对甘肃西峰红粘土样品的地球化学研究,发现其碳酸盐含量较高,而Si、Al、Fe等元素含量相对较低。为消除碳酸盐的影响,样品经酸溶处理后其化学组成十分均一,反映物质来源的一致性。稀土元素以及微量元素分布形式揭示出红粘土与第四纪黄土-古土壤风成成因的相似性。研究表明,红粘土的化学风化尚处于脱Ca、Na为主的早期阶段;CIA值和酸不溶物中的Na/K比及Rb/Sr比参数一致地指示了红粘土化学风化程度高于第四纪的黄土和古土壤,反映出晚第三纪以来黄土高原的气候由相对温暖湿润向第四纪逐渐变干变冷演化的总趋势。