Atmospheric drag coefficients over sea ice — validation of a parameterisation concept

The concept of drag partitioning to parameterise the surface roughness of sea ice is validated using topography data of regions with high sea ice concentrations. The parameterised drag is compared to measurements obtained by aircraft and ship. The form drag can well be expressed as a function of mean ridge heights and spacings averaged over flight legs of 12 km, if an improved approximation for the coefficient of resistance of a single ridge is used. We find a good agreement between the parameterised and observed drag coefficients. The highest sea ice roughness was encountered close to coastal regions and the lowest in the central Arctic.     

引入拖曳系数参数化的海冰自由漂流模拟研究

Many interesting characteristics of sea ice drift depend on the atmospheric drag coefficient(C_a) and oceanic drag coefficient(C_w).Parameterizations of drag coefficients rather than constant values provide us a way to look insight into the dependence of these characteristics on sea ice conditions.In the present study,the parameterized ice drag coefficients are included into a free-drift sea ice dynamic model,and the wind factor α and the deflection angle θ between sea ice drift and wind velocity as well as the ratio of C_a to C_w are studied to investigate their dependence on the impact factors such as local drag coefficients,floe and ridge geometry.The results reveal that in an idealized steady ocean,C_a/C_w increases obviously with the increasing ice concentration for small ice floes in the marginal ice zone,while it remains at a steady level(0.2-0.25) for large floes in the central ice zone.The wind factor α increases rapidly at first and approaches a steady level of 0.018 when A is greater than 20%.And the deflection angle θ drops rapidly from an initial value of approximate 80° and decreases slowly as A is greater than20%without a steady level like α.The values of these parameters agree well with the previously reported observations in Arctic.The ridging intensity is an important parameter to determine the dominant contribution of the ratio of skin friction drag coefficient(C_s' /C_s) and the ratio of ridge form drag coefficient(C_r'/C_r) to the value of C_a/C_w,α,and θ,because of the dominance of ridge form drag for large ridging intensity and skin friction for small ridging intensity among the total drag forces.Parameterization of sea ice drag coefficients has the potential to be embedded into ice dynamic models to better account for the variability of sea ice in the transient Arctic Ocean.     

Near-neutral drag coefficients over open-ocean waves

Reanalysis of open-ocean eddy-correlation drag coefficients observed at Argus Island Tower near Bermuda indicates that near-neutral drag coefficients decrease with increasing mean horizontal wind velocity when the dominant (spectral peak) ocean wave phase velocity is much greater than the mean wind velocity. Near-neutral drag coefficients attain constant values when the dominant wave phase velocity approaches mean wind velocity, and increase again when mean wind velocity is greater than or equal to dominant wave phase velocity.     

Dissipation observations of drag coefficients over the open ocean

Forty-three open-ocean observations of drag coefficients observed at Argus Island Tower near Bermuda by the dissipation technique resulted in constant drag coefficients for mean horizontal wind velocities between 7.8 and10.4 m .s^{1}in good agreement with the larger near-neutral data set of DeLeonibus and Simpson [1] and the neutral data of Large and Pond [2], both of whom observed10^{3}C_{10} = 1.2whereC_{10}is the drag coefficient at l0 m. Ratios of vertical-to-horizontal wind velocity spectral densities averaged over an inertial subrange of 0.8 to 1.6 Hz ranged from 0.7 to 1.07 in agreement with the Busch and Panofsky [3] result that isotropy is approached only when the observation height is much greater than the Nyquist wavelength.     

On the parameterization of drag coefficient over sea surface

Six parameterization schemes of roughness or drag coefficient are evaluated on the basis of the data from six experiments. They present great consistency with measurement when friction velocity u*<0.5 m/s (approximately corresponding to 10 m wind speed U10 <12 m/s) and large deviation from measurement when u*≥0.5 m/s (approximately U10≥12 m/s). In order to improve the deviation, a new parameterization of drag coefficient is derived on the basis of the similarity theory, Charnock relationship and Toba 3/2 power law. Wave steepness and wind-sea Reynolds number are considered in the new parameterization. Then it is tested on the basis of the measurements and shows significant improvement when u*≥0.5 m/s. Its standard errors are much smaller than the ones of the other six parameterizations. However, the new parameterization still needs more tests especially for high winds.     

A new parameterization of surface drag in the marginal sea ice zone

A parameterization of subgridscale surface fluxes over the marginal sea ice zone which has been used earlier in several studies is modified and applied to a nonhydrostatic mesoscale model. The new scheme accounts for the form drag of ice floes and is combined with a so-called flux averaging method for the determination of surface fluxes over inhomogeneous terrain. Individual fluxes over ice and water are calculated as a function of the blending height. It is shown by comparison with observations that the drag coefficients calculated with the new parameterization agree well with data. The original scheme strongly overestimates the form drag effect. An improvement is mainly obtained by an inclusion of stratification and by use of a more adequate coefficient of resistance for individual ice floes. The mesoscale model is applied to off-ice flows over the polar marginal sea ice zone. The model results show that under certain meteorological conditions the form drag can have a strong influence on the near-surface wind velocity and on the turbulent fluxes of momentum. Four case studies are carried out. The maximum influence of form drag occurs in the case with strong unstable stratification and with wind oblique to the ice edge. Under these conditions the wind stress on sea ice is modified by at least 100% for ice concentrations less than 50% if form drag is taken into account.     

台湾海域海面粗糙度及曳力系数的研究

利用福建沿海海域南日岛、金门岛与广东南澳岛的近海面气象、水文观测资料及台湾海峡西南部与南部的浮标观测资料,通过COARE(Coupled-Ocean Atmosphere Response Experiment)算法(V3.0),计算了台湾海域近海面空气动力粗糙度、曳力系数及海气表面动量通量,并研究它们关于水平风速的分布规律。结果得出:摩擦速度与10m风速基本上呈线性分布,线性拟合系数在0.042～0.045之间。曳力系数对10m风速的线性分布与过去研究结果相近,线性拟合系数在0.064～0.067之间。海面空气动力粗糙度对10m风速的线性拟合系数在0.053～0.058之间。海面动量通量与10m风速呈明显的二次关系,其线性与非线性拟合系数对于进一步了解台海地区大气湍流结构,建立和完善台海地区数值预报模式可提供重要的参数依据。     

北极地区不同冰龄的海冰厚度变化研究

In this study, changes in Arctic sea ice thickness for each ice age category were examined based on satellite observations and modelled results. Interannual changes obtained from Ice, Cloud, and Land Elevation Satellite(ICESat)-based results show a thickness reduction over perennial sea ice(ice that survives at least one melt season with an age of no less than 2 year) up to approximately 0.5–1.0 m and 0.6–0.8 m(depending on ice age) during the investigated winter and autumn ICESat periods, respectively. Pan-Arctic Ice Ocean Modeling and Assimilation System(PIOMAS)-based results provide a view of a continued thickness reduction over the past four decades. Compared to 1980 s, there is a clear thickness drop of roughly 0.50 m in 2010 s for perennial ice. This overall decrease in sea ice thickness can be in part attributed to the amplified warming climate in north latitudes. Besides, we figure out that strongly anomalous southerly summer surface winds may play an important role in prompting the thickness decline in perennial ice zone through transporting heat deposited in open water(primarily via albedo feedback) in Eurasian sector deep into a broader sea ice regime in central Arctic Ocean. This heat source is responsible for enhanced ice bottom melting, leading to further reduction in ice thickness.     

热带太平洋海温异常对北极海冰的可能影响

本文利用1950-2015年间Hadley环流中心海冰和海温资料及NCEP/NCAR再分析资料,研究了热带太平洋海温异常对北极海冰的可能影响,并从大气环流和净表面热通量两个角度探讨了可能的物理机制。结果表明,在ENSO事件发展年的夏、秋季节,EP型与CP型El Niño事件与北极海冰异常的联系无明显信号。而La Niña事件期间北极海冰出现显著异常,并且EP型与CP型La Niña之间存在明显差异。EP型La Niña发生时,北极地区巴伦支海、喀拉海关键区海冰异常减少,CP型La Niña事件则对应着东西伯利亚海、楚科奇海地区海冰异常增加。在EP型La Niña发展年的夏、秋季节,热带太平洋海温异常通过遥相关波列,使得巴伦支海、喀拉海海平面气压为负异常并与中纬度气压正异常共同构成类似AO正位相的结构,形成的风场异常有利于北大西洋暖水的输入,同时造成暖平流,偏高的水汽含量进一步加强了净表面热通量收入,使得巴伦支海、喀拉海海冰异常减少。而在CP型La Niña发展年的夏季,东西伯利亚海、楚科奇海关键区受其东侧气旋式环流的影响,以异常北风分量占主导,将海冰从极点附近由北向南输送到关键区,海冰异常增加,而净表面热通量的作用较小。     

海面风应力拖曳系数参数化方案对风暴潮数值模拟的影响

为了比较不同的海面风应力拖曳系数参数化方案在风暴潮数值模拟中的效果,采用9种不同的风应力拖曳系数参数化方案对湛江附近海域15个热带气旋风暴潮进行数值模拟.模拟结果表明,不同风应力拖曳系数参数化方案对热带气旋风暴潮增水最大值的数值模拟效果不完全相同,在风暴潮数值模拟中要选择合适的风应力拖曳系数参数化方案;文中Smith(...     

Dimethylsulphide and dimethylsulphoniopropionate in Antarctic sea ice and their release during sea ice melting

This study presents concentrations of dimethylsulphide (DMS) and its precursor compound dimethylsulphoniopropionate (DMSP) in a variety of sea ice and seawater habitats in the Antarctic Sea Ice Zone (ASIZ) during spring and summer. Sixty-two sea ice cores of pack and fast ice were collected from twenty-seven sites across an area of the eastern ASIZ (64°E to 110°E; and the Antarctic coastline north to 62°S). Concentrations of DMS in 81 sections of sea ice ranged from < 0.3 to 75 nM, with an average of 12 nM. DMSP in 60 whole sea ice cores ranged from 25 to 796 nM and showed a negative relationship with ice thickness (y = 125x^− 0.8). Extremely high DMSP concentrations were found in 2 cores of rafted sea ice (2910 and 1110 nM). The relationship of DMSP with ice thickness (excluding rafted ice) suggests that the release of large amounts of DMSP during sea ice melting may occur in discrete areas defined by ice thickness distribution, and may produce ‘hot spots’ of elevated seawater DMS concentration of the order of 100 nM. During early summer across a 500 km transect through melting pack ice, elevated DMS concentrations (range 21–37 nM, mean 31 nM, n = 15) were found in surface seawater. This band of elevated DMS concentration appeared to have been associated with the release of sea ice DMS and DMSP rather than in situ production by an ice edge algal bloom, as chlorophyll a concentrations were relatively low (0.09–0.42 μg l^− 1). During fast ice melting in the area of Davis station, Prydz Bay, sea ice DMSP was released mostly as extracellular DMSP, since intracellular DMSP was negligible in both hyposaline brine (5 ppt) and in a melt water lens (4–5 ppt), while extracellular DMSP concentrations were as high as 149 and 54 nM, respectively in these habitats. DMS in a melt water lens was relatively high at 11 nM. During the ice-free summer in the coastal Davis area, DMS concentrations in surface seawater were highest immediately following breakout of the fast ice cover in late December (range 5–14 nM), and then remained at relatively low concentrations through to late February (< 0.3–6 nM). These measurements support the view that the melting of Antarctic sea ice produces elevated seawater DMS due to release of sea ice DMS and DMSP.     

渤海冰情与老虎滩水温的关系

本文对2000～2004年连续5年冬季老虎滩水温与渤海冰面积数据进行统计分析,得到渤海海冰面积与老虎滩水温的回归关系,对冬季海冰预报具有一定的参考意义。     

北冰洋高纬度区域海冰及气象特征分析

基于2018年8月至2019年5月布放在北极随海冰漂流的自动气象站和温度链浮标获取的观测数据,分析了北极高纬度区域的大气特征和海冰生消过程。根据海冰的漂移轨迹分为两个阶段分析,第1阶段,海冰主要向东南漂移;第2阶段,海冰主要向东北漂移。第1阶段观测的平均气温和平均相对湿度分别为–6.6℃和93%,第2阶段观测的平均气温和平均相对湿度分别为–29.3℃和76%,第2阶段平均气压高于第1阶段。海冰的漂移轨迹主要受到波弗特高压外围气流的影响。利用自动气象站漂移轨迹计算得到海冰漂移速度,与美国国家冰雪数据中心海冰漂移速度比较显示,两者纬向速度更为接近。海冰在第1阶段以融化为主,海冰厚度略有减小,8月份海冰生长率为–0.11 cm/d;海冰的生长过程主要发生在第2阶段,1–3月生长率均超过0.9 cm/d,2019年3月海冰生长最快,平均生长率为1.3 cm/d,海冰的增长一直持续至观测结束。     

海面阻力系数的流体力学研究

利用相似理论的方法 ,把解决湍流问题的尼古拉兹曲线引入到风应力的计算中。阐明了决定海面阻力系数的关键因素是海浪的平均波高及摩擦层厚度 ,并推出了它们之间的关系式。     

南极海冰和陆架冰的变化特征

利用美国冰中心和雪冰中心提供的海冰资料和我国南极考察现场的海冰观测资料,对南极海冰的长期变化进行了研究.研究表明20世纪70年代后期是多冰期;80年代是少冰期;90年代南极海冰属于上升趋势,后期偏多,区域性变化差别大,东南极海冰偏多,西南极海冰即南极半岛两侧尤其是威德尔海区和别林斯高晋海的冰明显偏少.东南极和西南极海冰的变化趋势总是反相的.90年代后期普里兹湾的海冰明显偏多,南极大陆陆架冰外缘线总体没有明显的收缩,有崩解也有再生的自然变化现象.西南极威德尔海的龙尼冰架和罗斯海冰架东部崩解和收缩趋势明显,东南极的冰架也有崩解和收缩,但没有西南极明显.陆架冰崩解向海洋输送的冰山对全球海平面升高有一定的影响.目前南极冰盖断裂崩解形成的冰山,向海洋输入的水量可使全球海平面上升约14mm.南极海冰没有随着全球气候温暖化而明显减少,而是按照东南极和西南极反相的变化规律进行周期性的变化、调整和制约.     

Spatio-temporal analysis of the melt onset dates over Arctic sea ice from 1979 to 2017

The melt onset dates(MOD) over Arctic sea ice plays an important role in the seasonal cycle of sea ice surface properties, which impacts Arctic surface solar radiation absorbed by the ice-ocean system. Monitoring interannual variations in MOD is valuable for understanding climate change. In this study, we investigated the spatio-temporal variability of MOD over Arctic sea ice and 14 Arctic sub-regions in the period of 1979 to 2017 from passive microwave satellite data. A set of mathematical and ...     

Total inorganic carbon in sea ice

The method proposed for determining the total inorganic carbon (TC) concentrations in sea ice (Arctic region, North Pole-35 expedition) based on the measurement of the total alkalinity (TA) and the pH in the melt waters without the CO₂ exchange with the atmosphere is considered. It is shown that the TC/Sal and TA/TC values through the entire ice section remain similar to these parameters in the subice water. The surface snow and the uppermost ice layers are characterized by elevated TA/TC values, which indicate the reaction Ca²⁺ + 2HCO₃⁻ = ↓CaCO₃ + ↑CO₂ + H₂O. The release of CO₂ to the atmosphere due to the decomposition of calcium hydrocarbonate is as high as ∼20 mmol/m². The meltwater of the examined ice is undersaturated with CO₂, which may result in a sink of atmospheric CO₂ (∼30 mmol/m²).     

Halocarbons associated with Arctic sea ice

Short-lived halocarbons were measured in Arctic sea–ice brine, seawater and air above the Greenland and Norwegian seas (~81°N, 2–5°E) in mid-summer, from a melting ice floe at the edge of the ice pack. In the ice floe, concentrations of C₂H₅I, 2-C₃H₇I and CH₂Br₂ showed significant enhancement in the sea ice brine, of average factors of 1.7, 1.4 and 2.5 times respectively, compared to the water underneath and after normalising to brine volume. Concentrations of mono-iodocarbons in air are the highest ever reported, and our calculations suggest increased fluxes of halocarbons to the atmosphere may result from their sea–ice enhancement. Some halocarbons were also measured in ice of the sub-Arctic in Hudson Bay (~55°N, 77°W) in early spring, ice that was thicker, colder and less porous than the Arctic ice in summer, and in which the halocarbons were concentrated to values over 10 times larger than in the Arctic ice when normalised to brine volume. Concentrations in the Arctic ice were similar to those in Antarctic sea ice that was similarly warm and porous. As climate warms and Arctic sea ice becomes more like that of the Antarctic, our results lead us to expect the production of iodocarbons and so of reactive iodine gases to increase.     

Antarctic sea ice and ENSO event

The characteristic low-frequency oscillation of the sea surface temperature anomaly (SSTA) of ENSO related regions, Nino 1 + 2, Nino 3, Nino 4 and Nino West, and the Southern Oscillation index (SOI) is analyzed with the method of maximum entropy spectrum. Antarctic sea ice is divided into 4 regions, i. e. East Antarctic is Region Ⅰ (0°-120° E), the region dominated by Ross Sea ice is Region Ⅱ (120° E-120° W), the region dominated by Ross Sea ice is Region Ⅲ (120° W-0°), and the whole Antarctic sea ice area is Region Ⅳ. Also, the month-to-month correlation series of the sea ice with ENSO from contemporary to 5-years lag is calculated. The optimum correlation period is selected from the series. The characteristics and the rules obtained are as follows.1. There are a common 4-years main period of the SSTA of Ninos 1 + 2,3 and 4, a rather strong 4-years secondary period and a quasi-8-years main period of that of Nino West. There are also 1. 5 and 2 to 3-years secondary periods of that of all 4 Nin     

Numerical sea ice prediction in China

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