The surface layer on the leeside of the Alps during foehn

Summary This paper describes and documents the meteorological conditions which occur in association with a cold surface layer on the northern lee side of the Alps during foehn. A climatological study using four years' rawinsonde data shows that during many foehn events a weak advection from the east occurs in the cold surface layer beneath the southerly foehn flow. Three cases of foehn in the northern Alps were studied using data taken by instrumented aircraft. The analysis of various vertical soundings between the baseline of the Alps and Munich indicate that the cold surface layer is eroded up to 50 km north of the baseline but that further north, the foehn has not touched the ground. The analysis of data taken in the urban plume west of Munich shows that the pollution is trapped by the inversion in the cold air leading to high levels of air pollution west of Munich.With 13 Figures     

Warming of an elevated layer over the Caribbean

Air temperatures in the trade wind inversion (~850 hPa) over the Caribbean have been rising much faster than sea temperatures. This is associated with an accelerated Hadley circulation, with sinking motions over the Caribbean corresponding with increasing rising motion over the Amazon. The sinking motions induce a faster rate of warming and drying in the trade wind inversion than at other levels. Much of the trend in Caribbean climate is attributable to physical mechanisms; changes in atmospheric composition play a secondary role. Smoke and dust plumes from Africa, drifting westward across the Atlantic, enhance the greenhouse effect in an elevated (1–3 km) layer. A stabilized lower atmosphere across the Caribbean has contributed to warming and drying trends over the twentieth century which are projected to continue. The atmosphere is warming faster than the ocean, causing a decline in sensible heat fluxes that fuel tropical cyclones.     

Warming of an elevated layer over Africa

This paper analyzes trends of temperatures over Africa and seeks to quantify the most significant processes. Observations of air temperature reveal significant warming trends in the 925–600 hPa layer over tropical west Africa and the east Atlantic. This is related to the influence of desert dust and biomass burning emissions on the atmospheric energy budget. We calculate a net radiative absorption of ～??20 W m^???2. The southern (northern) plume is rich in short-lived greenhouse gases (dust aerosols), and the atmospheric response, according to a simplified radiative transfer model, is a >3°C heating of the 2–4 km layer. The observed pattern of warming coincides with a mixture of dust, black carbon and short-lived greenhouse gases in space, time and height. Physical forcing provides a secondary source of regional warming, with sinking motions over the Sahel. The elevated warm layer stabilizes the lower atmosphere over and west of Africa, so drying trends may be anticipated.     

Radiative heat flux divergence and heat regime in the lowest layer of the atmosphere

Summary The problem of the influence of radiative flux divergence and turbulent heat exchange on temperature of the near-ground layer of the atmosphere is considered. Different methods of calculating long-wave radiative flux divergence are discussed. The importance of different factors for the thermal regime of the near-ground layer is established by means of the theory of non-stationary heat exchange. The primary conclusions are: 1) temperature changes influenced by radiation and turbulence are not additive; this means that, strictly speaking, separate calculations of either radiative or turbulent temperature changes have no meaning, 2) the theory developed in this paper is sufficiently exact to show that there is a great influence of radiative flux divergence on the thermal regime of the near-ground layer of the atmosphere.

---

Zusammenfassung Es wird das Problem des Einflusses der Strahlungsstrom-Divergenz und des turbulenten W?rmeaustausches auf die Temperatur der bodennahen Luftschicht behandelt. Verschiedene Methoden zur Berechnung der Divergenz der langwelligen Strahlungsstr?me werden diskutiert. Die Bedeutung der verschiedenen Faktoren für das Temperaturregime der bodennahen Luftschicht wird auf Grund der Theorie des nichtstation?ren W?rmeaustausches festgestellt. Die wichtigsten Schlu?folgerungen sind: 1. Die Temperatur?nderungen, die durch Strahlung und Turbulenz hervorgerufen werden, k?nnen nicht addiert werden; dies bedeutet, da? eine gesonderte Berechnung der Temperatur?nderungen durch Strahlungsvorg?nge bzw. durch den Turbulenzw?rmestrom streng genommen nicht zul?ssig ist. 2. Die in der vorliegenden Arbeit entwickelte Theorie erfa?t die tats?chlichen Vorg?nge mit genügender Genauigkeit, um zu beweisen, da? die Divergenz des langwelligen Strahlungsstromes für das Temperaturregime der bodennahen Luftschicht von gro?er Bedeutung ist.

---

Résumé Les auteurs traitent ici le problème de l'influence de la divergence du flux de rayonnement ainsi que des échanges turbulents de chaleur sur la température des couches d'air voisines du sol. Ils discutent diverses méthodes permettant de calculer la divergence des flux de rayonnement de grande longueur d'onde. Ils constatent l'importance des divers facteurs sur le régime de température de ces couches d'air voisines du sol et cela sur la base de la théorie des échanges de chaleur non stationnaires. Les conclusions principales sont: 1) les variations de température dues au rayonnement d'une part et à la turbulence d'autre part ne peuvent être additionnées; cela signifie que, si l'on veut être exact, il n'est pas possible de calculer séparément les variations de température dues aux phénomènes de rayonnement, respectivement aux courants thermiques turbulents, 2) la théorie développée dans ce travail embrasse avec suffisamment de précision les effets réels pour démontrer que la divergence du flux de rayonnement à grande longueur d'ondes est d'une importance capitale pour le régime des températures des couches d'air voisines du sol.

---

---

With 1 Figure

---

Dedicated to Dr.W. M?rikofer on the occasion of his 70 th birthday.     

Some aspects of the turbulent stable boundary layer

We consider the structure of the stable boundary layer using the concept of local scaling. In this scaling approach turbulence variables, non-dimensionalized with measurements taken at the same height, can be expressed as a function of a single parameter z/, where z is the height and a local Obukhov length. One of the consequences is that locally scaled variables become constant above the surface layer. This behavior is illustrated with observations of the Richardson number. With local scaling as a closure hypothesis we then formulate a model of the stable boundary layer. Its solution for steady-state conditions is given. One result we obtain is the well-known Zilitinkevich equation for the boundary-layer height. A comparison of this equation with observations results in a reasonable agreement. Also we discuss some alternative expressions for the stable boundary-layer height and compare them with observations. Another result of our model is an explicit profile for the K-coefficient as a quadratic function of height. We discuss the consequences of this expression for the dispersion of a point source emission. We find that the time scale of diffusion in this case is about 5 hours.     

Investigation of the Planetary Boundary Layer in the Swiss Alps Using Remote Sensing and In Situ Measurements

The development of the planetary boundary layer (PBL) has been studied in a complex terrain using various remote sensing and in situ techniques. The high-altitude research station at Jungfraujoch (3,580 m a.s.l.) in the Swiss Alps lies for most of the time in the free troposphere except when it is influenced by the PBL reaching the station, especially during the summer season. A ceilometer and a wind profiler were installed at Kleine Scheidegg, a mountain pass close to Jungfraujoch, located at an altitude of 2,061 m a.s.l. Data from the ceilometer were analyzed using two different algorithms, while the signal-to-noise ratio of the wind profiler was studied to compare the retrieved PBL heights. The retrieved values from the ceilometer and wind profiler agreed well during daytime and cloud-free conditions. The results were additionally compared with the PBL height estimated by the numerical weather prediction model COSMO-2, which showed a clear underestimation of the PBL height for most of the cases but occasionally also a slight overestimation especially around noon, when the PBL showed its maximum extent. Air parcels were transported upwards by slope winds towards Jungfraujoch when the PBL was higher than 2,800 m a.s.l. during cloud-free cases. This was confirmed by the in situ aerosol measurements at Jungfraujoch with a significant increase in particle number concentration, particle light absorption and scattering coefficients when PBL-influenced air masses reached the station in the afternoon hours. The continuous aerosol in situ measurements at Jungfraujoch were clearly influenced by the local PBL development but also by long-range transport phenomena such as Saharan dust or pollution from the south.     

Climatological aspects of the tropical convective boundary layer

The characteristics of a boundary layer depend both on conditions at the surface and in the interior of the medium. In the undisturbed tropics, the latter are largely determined by subsidence and by infrared radiational cooling. One-dimensional models are used to establish relationships between the inversion height, subsidence, upper-air humidity and sea-surface temperature. In particular, it is shown that a universally colder tropical ocean would probably be covered by more extensive clouds.Contribution No. 1700 Rosenstiel School of Marine and Atmospheric Science, University of Miami.     

Diapycnal heat flux and mixed layer heat budget within the Atlantic Cold Tongue

Sea surface temperatures (SSTs) in the eastern tropical Atlantic are crucial for climate variability within the tropical belt. Despite this importance, state-of-the-art climate models show a large SST warm bias in this region. Knowledge about the seasonal mixed layer (ML) heat budget is a prerequisite for understanding SST mean state and its variability. Within this study all contributions to the seasonal ML heat budget are estimated at four locations within the Atlantic cold tongue (ACT) that are representative for the western (0°N, 23°W), central (0°N, 10°W) and eastern (0°N, 0°E) equatorial as well as the southern (10°S, 10°W) ACT. To estimate the contribution of the diapycnal heat flux due to turbulence an extensive data set of microstructure observations collected during ten research cruises between 2005 and 2012 is analyzed. The results for the equatorial ACT indicate that with the inclusion of the diapycnal heat flux the seasonal ML heat budget is balanced. Within the equatorial region, the diapycnal heat flux is essential for the development of the ACT. It dominates over all other cooling terms in the central and eastern equatorial ACT, while it is of similar size as the zonal advection in the western equatorial ACT. In contrast, the SST evolution in the southern ACT region can be explained entirely by air-sea heat fluxes.     

The diffusion of particulate matter from an elevated source

Summary The problem of the diffusion of particulate matter from an elevated source is important to industry, to agriculture and to public health. On the experimental and theoretical side, simple ground measurements of this phenomenon offer very sensitive tests of diffusion theories.A theoretical solution to this problem, using theK-theory formulation byDeacon [1], but valid only for neutral stability, was given byRounds [2] in 1955 and has been extended by approximate methods to cover any stability by the present author. Calculations then show the dependence of down-wind distribution of deposited matter on stability, surface roughness, height of source, wind speed and particle size. The effects on the location and magnitude of maximum deposition produced by simultaneous variations in two or more of the above parameters are also portrayed.The formulation bySutton [3] of the statistical theory (theC-theory) has been applied to particulate diffusion by numerous authors, who give differing solutions largely as a result of inconsistent boundary assumptions. A formally correct solution is derived, but a fundamental reexamination of the turbulence mechanism described by theC-theory reveals that this theory is probably not applicable to diffusion from an elevated source near the ground (although it may give essentially the correct ground concentration for gaseous aerosols). In addition, theK-theory has a decided advantage for practical application in that all the parameters required are inherent in the vertical profile of wind speed.

---

Zusammenfassung Das Problem der Diffusion suspendierter Partikel von einer Quelle in der Höhe besitzt Bedeutung für Industrie, Landwirtschaft und öffentliche Hygiene. Von experimenteller und theoretischer Seite biete schon einfache Bodenmessungen dieses Vorganges sehr empfindliche Prüfmöglichkeiten für Diffusionstheorien.Eine theoretische Lösung dieses Problems, die auf derK-Theorie-Formulierung vonDeacon [1] beruht, jedoch nur für neutrale Stabilität Gültigkeit besitzt, wurde vonRounds [2] 1955 angegeben und wurde vom Verfasser der vorliegenden Arbeit durch Näherungsmethoden auf beliebige Stabilitätsbedingungen ausgedehnt. Berechnungen haben ergeben, daß die Abhängigkeit der Verteilung der Abwärtsströmungen der abgelagerten Materie von der Stabilität, der Bodenrauheit, der Höhe des Ausgangspunktes, der Windgeschwindigkeit und der Partikelgröße abhängig ist. Die Wirkungen, die durch gleichzeitige Variation von zwei oder mehr der genannten Parameter auf die Lokalisierung und das Ausmaß der maximalen Ablagerung hervorgerufen werden, konnten ebenfalls dargestellt werden. Suttons [3] Formulierung der statistischen Theorie (C-Theorie) wurde von zahlreichen Forschern auf die Partikeldiffusion angewendet, die im wesentlichen infolge unvereinbarer Grenzvoraussetzungen zu verschiedenartigen Lösungen gekommen sind. Es wird eine formell korrekte Lösung aufgestellt; doch ergibt eine auf die Grundtatsachen zurückgehende Überprüfung des Turbulenzmechanismus, wie er von derC-Theorie formuliert wird, daß diese Theorie wahrscheinlich nicht auf den Vorgang der Diffusion von einem erhöhten Ausgangspunkt in der Nähe des Bodens anwendbar ist (wenn sie auch in den Grundzügen in der Lage ist, die korrekte Bodenkonzentration für gasförmiges Aerosol wiederzugeben). Zudem hat dieK-Theorie einen entschiedenen Vorzug für die praktische Anwendung durch den Umstand, daß alle erforderlichen Parameter im Vertikalprofil der Windgeschwindigkeit enthalten sind.

---

Résumé Le problème de la diffusion de particules en suspension issues d'une source en altitude revêt une certaine importance pour l'industrie, l'agriculture et l'hygiène publique. Du point de vue expérimental et théorique, même des mesures au sol de ce phénomène offrent de fines possibilités de vérification des théories de la diffusion.La solution de ce problème fondée sur la théorie deDeacon [1], mais qui ne vaut que pour une stabilité neutre, a été donnée parRounds [2] en 1955 et a été étendue par l'auteur à d'autres conditions quelconques de stabilité par des méthodes d'approximation. Le calcul montre que les courants descendants de particules dépendent de la stabilité, de la rugosité du sol, de l'altitude de la source, de la vitesse du vent et de la grosseur des particules. L'auteur a pu aussi apprécier l'effet des paramètres variables mentionnés sur la localisation et le dépôt maximum.De nombreux chercheurs ont appliqué la théorie deSutton à la diffusion des particules et ont abouti à diverses solutions, en raison probablement de conditions aux limites incompatibles. L'auteur établit une formule correcte; mais l'examen du mécanisme de turbulence tel qu'il est formulé dans la théorie deSutton [3] montre que cette dernière n'est probablement pas applicable au voisinage du sol dans le cas d'une diffusion ayant sa source en un point élevé, bien qu'elle puisse fournir la concentration correcte dans le cas d'un aérosol gazéiforme. En outre la théorie deDeacon présente un net avantage pour les applications, du fait que tous les paramètres nécessaires sont contenus dans le profil vertical de la vitesse du vent.

---

---

Published by permission of the Director, Meteorological Branch, Department of Transport, Canada, and dedicated to Dr.Anders K. Ångström on the occasion of his 70th birthday.     

Minimum friction velocity and heat transfer in the rough surface layer of a convective boundary layer

A simple model is deduced for the surface layer of a convective boundary layer for zero mean wind velocity over homogeneous rough ground. The model assumes large-scale convective circulation driven by surface heat flux with a flow pattern as it would be obtained by conditional ensemble averages. The surface layer is defined here such that in this layer horizontal motions dominate relative to vertical components. The model is derived from momentum and heat balances for the surface layer together with closures based on the Monin-Obukhov theory. The motion in the surface layer is driven by horizontal gradients of hydrostatic pressure. The balances account for turbulent fluxes at the surface and fluxes by convective motions to the mixed layer. The latter are the dominant ones. The model contains effectively two empirical coefficients which are determined such that the model's predictions agree with previous experimental results for the horizontal turbulent velocity fluctuations and the temperature fluctuations. The model quantitatively predicts the decrease of the minimum friction velocity and the increase of the temperature difference between the mixed layer and the ground with increasing values of the boundary layer/roughness height ratio. The heat transfer relationship can be expressed in terms of the common Nusselt and Rayleigh numbers, Nu and Ra, as Nu ~ Ra^{% MathType!MTEF!2!1!+-% feaafeart1ev1aaatCvAUfeBSjuyZL2yd9gzLbvyNv2CaerbuLwBLn% hiov2DGi1BTfMBaeXatLxBI9gBaerbd9wDYLwzYbItLDharqqtubsr% 4rNCHbGeaGqiVu0Je9sqqrpepC0xbbL8F4rqqrFfpeea0xe9Lq-Jc9% vqaqpepm0xbba9pwe9Q8fs0-yqaqpepae9pg0FirpepeKkFr0xfr-x% fr-xb9adbaqaaeGaciGaaiaabeqaamaabaabaaGcbaWaaSGbaeaaca% aIXaaabaGaaGOmaaaaaaa!3779!\[{1 \mathord{\left/ {\vphantom {1 2}} \right. \kern-\nulldelimiterspace} 2}\]}. Previous results of the form Nu ~ Ra^{% MathType!MTEF!2!1!+-% feaafeart1ev1aaatCvAUfeBSjuyZL2yd9gzLbvyNv2CaerbuLwBLn% hiov2DGi1BTfMBaeXatLxBI9gBaerbd9wDYLwzYbItLDharqqtubsr% 4rNCHbGeaGqiVu0Je9sqqrpepC0xbbL8F4rqqrFfpeea0xe9Lq-Jc9% vqaqpepm0xbba9pwe9Q8fs0-yqaqpepae9pg0FirpepeKkFr0xfr-x% fr-xb9adbaqaaeGaciGaaiaabeqaamaabaabaaGcbaWaaSGbaeaaca% aIXaaabaGaaG4maaaaaaa!377A!\[{1 \mathord{\left/ {\vphantom {1 3}} \right. \kern-\nulldelimiterspace} 3}\]} are shown to be restricted to Rayleigh-numbers less than a certain value which depends on the boundary layer/roughness height ratio.     

由测风资料推算局地环流速度的方法

2021年1月中旬,三峡坝区出现了一次严重影响近坝区通航安全的持续性晴空大风过程(以下简称“21·1”坝区晴空大风)。使用常规观测资料及中尺度观测资料等,应用天气学分析和诊断方法,分析了“21·1”坝区晴空大风时空分布特征及其成因。结果表明: 此次晴空大风发生在背风坡河谷地带,大风期间存在4次风速波动,夜间风速大于白天;地面大风由边界层动量下传导致,动量来源于低层急流,下沉运动与大振幅背风波有关。边界层垂直风切变和逆温层的稳定存在使背风波持续时间增长,逆温层下较大的温度垂直递减率进一步加强了下沉运动,是晴空大风形成并持续的主要成因。

     

Drag and heat transfer relations for the planetary boundary layer

A theory is offered for the drag and heat transfer relations in the statistically steady, horizontally homogeneous, diabatic, barotropic planetary boundary layer. The boundary layer is divided into three regionsR ₁,R ₂, andR ₃, in which the heights are of the order of magnitude ofz ₀,L, andh, respectively, wherez ₀ is the roughness length for either momentum or temperature,L is the Obukhov length, andh is the height of the planetary boundary layer. A matching procedure is used in the overlap zones of regionsR ₁ andR ₂ and of regionsR ₂ andR ₃, assuming thatz ₀ L h. The analysis yields the three similarity functionsA(),B(), andC() of the stability parameter, = u _*/fL, where is von Kármán's constant,u _* is the friction velocity at the ground andf is the Coriolis parameter. The results are in agreement with those previously found by Zilitinkevich (1975) for the unstable case, and differ from his results only by the addition of a universal constant for the stable case. Some recent data from atmospheric measurements lend support to the theory and permit the approximate evaluation of universal constants.     

Boundary layer evolution over a large and broad mountain basin

Summary In this study observations of the vertical structure of the Atmospheric Boundary Layer (ABL), recorded at a broad mountainous valley are presented. The vertical profiles of temperature, wind speed and direction up to a height of about 800 meters over the valley bottom have been measured and the temporal evolution of ABL structure of the area has been studied. Specifically, the mechanism of nocturnal inversion destruction during morning hours has been studied, which is of major importance in the study of the dispersion of air pollutants over the area. These observations suggest that the break up of nocturnal inversion during morning hours is mainly caused by a combined mechanism, the build up of the Convective Boundary Layer (CBL) and the presence of upslope winds, resulting to a continuous descent of the top of the nocturnal inversion.With 5 Figures     

Streamwise heat flux budget in the atmospheric surface layer

Atmospheric surface-layer measurements of terms in the equation for the streamwise heat flux confirm previous results in both laboratory and atmosphere that the temperature-pressure gradient correlation acts as a sink, approximately equal in magnitude to the production term. The measured viscous dissipation term is independent of stability and represents less than 10% of the production term over the range of experimental stability conditions. Models for the temperature-pressure gradient correlation are compared with the measurements.     

Some aspects of the structure of the stably stratified atmospheric boundary layer

Results of an analysis based on the Leipzig wind data are presented. The computed stress profiles and the proportionality constant in the inverse relationship between the non-dimensionalized stable boundary-layer height and the square root of the stability parameter seem to agree well with the model results of Businger and Arya (1974).     

三维层结流中地形上空湍流边界层结构特征研究

利用中尺度数值模式ARPS,在理想条件下研究了旋转、地表摩擦的共同作用下,均匀来流条件下,三维层结大气中地形上空及其边界层结构特征.重点讨论了不同的山地流动Fr数、不同上游来流方向情况下,山地流动及其边界层的特征.在大气稳定层结条件下,山地流动具有上游阻挡、下游急流加速以及重力波破碎等流动特征,这些山地流动特征在柯氏力的影响下,均表现出了南北非对称性.当山地流动的Fr数增加(增加地形高度)时,山地流动的南北急流增强,由于柯氏力的影响,南侧急流的增幅更为显著,流动的南北非对称性增强.在干过程山地流动中,由急流所导致的强烈的垂直风切变,是湍流边界层产生和发展的直接决定因素.     

塔中一次强沙尘暴过程边界层风场变化特征

利用风廓线雷达探测资料对2010年4月19日塔中一次强沙尘暴过程中的边界层三维风场进行分析研究。沙尘暴爆发前,塔中1 000 m高度内空中风主导风向由偏东风转为偏西风;沙尘暴爆发时,地面至1 500 m高度内为偏东风。近地面风速在沙尘暴爆发初期迅速增大至18.3 m/s,中后期逐渐变小,但依然保持10 m/s左右的较大风速;300～1 000 m高度,沙尘暴爆发时段的风速小于过程前后;1 000～2 000 m高度内,沙尘暴爆发前风速达到最大,然后随时间变化呈递减趋势;3 000 m以上高空风在沙尘暴爆发期间风速可达20 m/s。沙尘暴过程中塔中上空存在明显的沙尘颗粒沉降运动,平均下沉速度为1.2 m/s。     

Response of the urban boundary layer to heat addition and surface roughness

A two-dimensional numerical model is used to determine the sensitivity of the urban climate of mid-latitude cities to heat addition and surface roughness. Nocturnal winter conditions are considered. Artificial heating is found to be the major factor in controlling the urban temperature field, and roughness the controlling factor for the wind field. Present rates of heat addition are found to warm the urban air by 2 to 4K. Results from the model are compared with observational data for Montreal. The effects of varying the heights of heat addition and the use of greenbelts are also examined.