Polar bear predation on ringed seals in the fast-ice of Hornsund, Svalbard

Polar bear hunting success on ringed seals in subnivean lairs and basking on the fast ice, was studied in Hornsund, Svalbard. A few bears were observed while actually hunting, but in most cases bear tracks were followed by snowmobile to determine the outcome of hunts. Seal carcasses were classified from size and tooth annuli as pups, juveniles or adults. A total of 62 subnivean structures were entered by bears, with six seals killed. One of ten charges on basking seals resulted in a kill. Success rates of bears in Hornsund arc compared with results of studies in Canada and Svalbard. OHunting success, polar bear, predation, ringed seal     

Total mercury in hair of polar bears (Ursus maritimus) from Greenland and Svalbard

Concentrations (ppm = ug/g dry weight) of total mercury (Hg) were determined in hair of polar bears ( Ursus maritimus) from northwestern Greenland (N = 22; period of sampling: 1978-1989), eastern Greenland (N = 44: 1984-1989) and Svalbard (N = 31; 1980). For subadults (2-6 years of life), adults (7-10 years). and old bears (>10 years), concentrations of total Hg in hair were not found to be dependent on age or sex. A decreasing trend in Hg concentrations was found from west to east. The mean concentrations of total Hg in hair (cubs of the year and yearlings excluded) were: northwestern Greenland, x = 8.38 ppm (min.-max.: 4.71-14.19 ppm. N = 21); eastern Greenland: x = 4.58 ppm (min.-max.: 2.50-8.83 ppm. N = 41); and Svalbard, x = 1.98 ppm (min.-max.: 1.02-4.55 ppm, N = 29). Concentrations found in northwestern Greenland were similar to those reported by others from the hair of polar bears sampled within management zone F of the eastern Canadian High Arctic. Concentrations of total Hg in polar bear hair from eastern Greenland were similar to concentrations found by others in contemporary (1988) material collected during spring in western Svalbard. However, the mean concentration of total Hg in the 1980 Svalbard material, which was collected during July-September, was significantly lower than concentrations found in samples taken during late winter and spring in eastern Greenland and at Svalbard, respectively. Presumably the relatively low concentrations found in the 1980 Svalbard sample arc attributable to the period of moult and hence a larger proportion of newly grown hair in the individual samples. In a subsample consisting of internal tissues from 19 polar bears from eastern Greenland (1984-1987), concentrations of total Hg in hair correlated positively with concentrations of total Hg (wet weight) in muscle (N = 6), liver (N = 19) and kidney (N = 19) tissue. For liver and kidney tissue these relationships were statistically significant.     

Radiation climate variability in Svalbard: surface and satellite observations

This paper performs a climatological investigation of the surface radiation budget (SRB) in Svalbard, on the basis of the Norwegian Polar Institute's radiation measurements from Ny-Ålesund (1981-1997) and the NASA/Langley Surface Radiation Budget Dataset (1983-1991). The radiation climate is related to meteorological conditions and surface properties, and compared to surface radiation fluxes measured from space. The natural variability of the short-wave and long-wave radiation fluxes in Ny-Ålesund is generally governed by the large annual variation in the incoming light with polar night and polar day conditions, the large changes of surface albedo - especially during spring - and the atmospheric circulation with frequent cyclone passages during winter with alternating periods of warm, humid maritime air from the south and cold, dry Arctic air from the north.
Comparison with the satellite derived surface radiation fluxes shows that NyÅlesund is to a large extent influenced by the "ocean" climate to the west of Svalbard during the summer and autumn, but has a more "continental" radiation climate representative of the more central parts of the island during winter and spring. Ny-Ålesund is located in a fiord on the north-west coast of Svalbard, where the ocean cloud cover and the Arctic sea fog play an important role during the summer. During the winter and spring, however, the fiords are frozen and the drift ice covers a large extent of the surrounding ocean.     

Development of a cloud detection method from whole-sky color images

A method is proposed for detecting clouds from whole-sky color images obtained with an all-sky camera (ASC) system. In polar regions, cloud detection using whole-sky images usually suffers from large uncertainties in fractional cloud cover retrievals because of large solar zenith angles (SZAs) and high surface albedo, which cause “whitening” in the images. These problems are addressed by using differences between real images and virtual clear-sky images for a particular observation time with the same SZA. The method is applied to ASC images obtained at Ny-Ålesund, Svalbard in May of 2005–2007, and the results are compared with Micro-Pulse Lidar (MPL) measurements. When no clouds were detected by MPL, the false cloud detection rate from ASC classification was 2.1% in total hours. Conversely, when clouds were detected by MPL, the ASC classification underestimated the clouds by 11.6%. In most cases, this occurred when MPL detected very optically thin clouds. Furthermore, the variability of cloud fractions estimated by MPL and ASC was roughly constant regardless of the SZA. Thus, it is confirmed that the method developed in this study is valid for cloud detection from whole-sky color images.     

Low protein variability and genetic similarity between populations of the polar bear (Ursus maritimus)

Blood samples from a total of 460 polar bears ( Ursus maritimus ) from various Arctic regions, but excluding the USSR, were collected during the period 1967-1981 to study electrophoretic variation in different proteins. Two hundred and one samples from Alaska, 48 from the Canadian Arctic, 89 from Svalbard, and 21 from Northeast Greenland were collected during the period 1967-1973 and were analysed by vertical polyacrylamide gel electrophoresis to study transferrin and hemoglobin polymorphism. Thirty-one samples collected in 1974 were analysed by starch gel electrophoresis for 14 enzyme systems in serum and red blood cells. Seventy samples collected from Alaska, the Barents Sea, and Canada in 1980-81 were studied by starch gel electrophoresis, and further analysed for protein variation by thin-layer isoelectric focusing, horizontal polyacrylamide gel electrophoresis, and two-dimensional electrophoresis. In all, about 75 loci were analysed for variation. The degree of protein and enzyme variation in the polar bear was observed to be relatively low. Starch gel electrophoresis revealed variation of an unidentified serum protein. The distribution of this protein indicates a closer connection between bears in Alaska and Canada compared to those in Greenland and Svalbard, but the differences were not significant. As in many large mammals, the information from protein variation in polar bears has limited use for management purposes. We could not find any simple system usable for identification of discrete populations. On the basis of protein variation as sole criterion, the populations investigated could not be separated. Possible explanations for the uniformity of blood proteins can be exchange of bears between geographical areas and/or a high selective pressure in polar bears.     

The capabilities of the EISCAT Svalbard Radar for inter-hemispheric coordinated studies

In this article we want to present the EISCAT Svalbard Radar (ESR) in some detail, as well as some of the instruments of interest for ionospheric and magnetospheric research that are located in the vicinity of it. We particularly describe how this instrument cluster, close to the geomagnetic conjugate point of the Chinese Antarctic Zhongshan Station, can contribute to inter hemispheric coordinated studies of the polar ionosphere.     

Trichinella sp. in polar bears from Svalbard, in relation to hide length and age

DiaPhragma and masseter muscles from 376 polar bears ( Ursus maritimus ), 252 ringed seals ( Phoca hispida ), 84 bearded seals ( Erignathus barbatus ), and 77 arctic foxes ( Alopex lagopus ) from Svalbard were examined for Trichinella . Infection rates in polar bears varied between 23 and 58%, and between 3 and 67% in arctic fox- None of tne seals were infected. Trichinella in polar bears is probably transferred through cannibalism and scavenging upon polar bear carcasses. Infection rate in arctic fox was high when they preyed upon polar bear carcasses before polar bear hunting was prohibited in 1973. A low infection rate seems more natural when such prey is not available. No difference could be found in infection rate between male and female polar bears. There is only a slight increase in infection rate with age, as calculated from hide lengths, and many adult animals remain uninfected. Geographical isolation of polar bear populations may explain differences in Trichinella infection rates between bears from arctic America and arctic Europe. Possible explanations are that discrete polar bear populations have different food habits, or that they are exposed to different Trichinella strains.     

A hundred years of Norwegian exploration of the polar regions

Nanscn's crossing of Greenland in 1888 galvanized Norwegians to a leading role in polar exploration. Subsequent expeditions include Nanscn's ‘Fram’ drift (1893-1896), Otto Sverdrup to Arctic Canada (1898-1902) and Roald Amundsen through the North-west Passage (1903-1906). Systematic exploration of Svalbard started in 1906. Norwegian Antarctic activities include Larsen's exploration of the Weddell Sea (1894), Borchgrcvinck's Antarctic expedition (1898-1900) and Amundsen at the South Pole (1911). Norwegian polar activities up to the present have resulted in about 200 topographic and thematic maps. Norwegian polar experience has led to efficient and safe operations, and Norwegian ships are preferred by many nations.     

Stratigraphic and Morphologic Constraints on the Weichselian Glacial History of Northern Prins Karls Forland, Western Svalbard

Uncertainty remains if ice–free marginal areas existed on the west coast of Svalbard during the Late Weichselian. Field mapping and correlation to well dated raised beach sequences on nearby Brøggerhalvøya reveal the existence of two generations of raised beach deposits on northern Prins Karls Forland. Distinct beach ridges rise up to the inferred Late Weichselian marine limit at 18 m a.s.l. Discontinuous pre–Late Weichselian beach deposits rise from the Late Weichselian marine limit up to approximately 60 m a.s.l. Expansion of local glaciers during the Late Weichselian is indicated by the limited distribution of a till that overlies parts of the older beach sequence. Stratigraphic data and chronological control indicate deposition in a shallow marine environment before 50 ka bp . Correlation to stratigraphic sites on western Svalbard suggests deposition at c . 70 ±10 ka. Glaciotectonic structures disclose expansion of local glaciers into the For–landsundet basin during stage 4 or late stage 5 high relative sea level. Palaeotemperature estimates derived from amino acid ratios indicate that during the time interval c . 70 to 10 ka the area was exposed to cold subaerial temperatures with low rates of racemization. Pedogenesis and frost–shattered clasts at the contact between c . 70 ka deposits and Holocene deposits further indicate a prolonged period of subaerial polar desert conditions during this time interval. The evidence suggests that the Barents Sea ice sheet did not extend across northern Prins Karls Forland during the Weichselian. It is inferred that during the Late Weichselian, ice was drained throughout the major fjords on the west coast of Svalbard and that relatively large marginal areas experienced polar desert conditions and minor expansions of local glaciers.     

Summer diet of seabirds from the Frans Josef Land archipelago, Russian Arctic

Food samples from 102 seabirds from eight species (fulmar Fulmarus glacialis , common eider Somateria mollissima , glaucous gull Larus hyperboreus , kittiwake Rissa tridaayla , arctic tern Sterna paradisaea , Briinnich's guillemot Uria lorn via , black guillemot Cepphus grylle , little auk Alle alle) were collected during the period August 1991–1993 in the southern part of the Frans Josef Land archipelago, 80°N, 53°E. The pelagic amphipod Parathemisto libellula and polar cod Boreogadus saida were the two most commonly taken food items (frequency of occurrence over 50% and weight contribution more than 70%). Ice-associated crustaceans contributed to some 10% of the weight in the samples. In general, the food composition was very similar to that reported from Svalbard. However, birds from Frans Josef Land fed on a lower diversity of prey compared to Svalbard populations.     

The hunting of the Greenland right whale in Svalbard, its interaction with climate and its impact on the marine ecosystem

During the 17th and 18th centuries, tens of thousands of Greenland right whales were killed as a result of extensive European whaling in the coastal waters of the Svalbard archipelago. The author reconstructed these whaling activities, examined how the changing climate affected whaling productivity, and considered the consequences of climate and whaling on the species and on the North Atlantic ecosystem. Annual catch records made it possible to calculate the original size of the whale population; its natural migration pattern in the Greenland Sea could be reconstructed using shipping logs and itineraries. Other written sources revealed that besides human hunting activities, climate change played an important role in the elimination of the Greenland right whale from the Arctic marine ecosystem. This elimination made millions of plankton available for other marine mammals, polar cod and planktonfeeding birds. This has caused a major shift in the food web. changing the marine ecosystem in Svalbard.     

Egg laying, chick growth and food of kittiwakes Rissa tridactyla at Hopen, Svalbard

In 1984, kittiwakes at Hopen laid eggs ca. 14 days later than previously found in North Norway and on the Kola Peninsula. The mean clutch size, egg volume, and hatching success were otherwise very similar to those documented on the mainland. Although feeding trips were very long, a rapid chick growth and high rate of chick survival suggested that food availability was not a limiting factor in 1984. In contrast to other sites at Svalbard where polar cod Boreogadus saida and crustaceans dominate kittiwake diets, the diets of chicks at Hopen consisted mainly of capelin Mallotus villosus which the adults probably collected at or beyond the polar front southeast of the island.     

E. B. Baldwin and the American–Norwegian discovery and exploration of Graham Bell Island, 1899

This next paper in Polar Research's series of not-formally-reviewed biographical/historical articles comes to us from anthropologist Pete Capelotti, who specializes in the history of exploration. In 1993, he conducted archaeological research on the base camps of the Andrée and Wellman polar balloon expeditions at Virgohamna, Danskøya, Svalbard. In this account of Walter Wellman's attempt to reach the North Pole from Franz Josef Land in 1898-99, he examines the lone success in that effort, when one American and four Norwegians discovered and explored the last large island in the archipelago.     

Availability of suitable land-fast ice and predation as factors limiting ringed seal populations, Phoca hispida, in Svalbard

We examined the stability of fast ice areas in western and northern Spitsbergen, the area north of Nordaustlandet, the bays and sounds of Hinlopen Stretet and the large area in the northern part of Storfjorden. NOAA satellite imagery from 1974 and 1988 and NOAA (AVHRR) imagery from 1980-87 were used to determine the dates of freeze-up and break-up. The number of days of fast ice present before the nominal birth date of ringed seal pups were computed for all major bays and fjords. Ice thickness was then computed from these data. Known prime breeding habitat in Svalbard is found in areas near glacier fronts in protected fjords and bays, where densities of birth lairs are 5.46 km⁻², corresponding to a ringed seal female density of 2.6 km⁻². Most of the ringed seal breeding habitat in Svalbard, however, consists of flat fjord ice where snow accumulation is rarely deep enough to permit birth lair construction. In these areas pups are often born in the open. Based on breathing hole densities, the density of adult females in the flat ice areas in the breeding period was estimated to 0.98 km⁻². A preliminary estimate is that approximately 19,500 pups could be born annually in the fast ice of Svalbard. Annual recruitment could be quite variable given the unpredictable nature of the fast ice areas and the high predation mortality on newborn pups. Discrepancies between our calculated ringed seal production and numbers of seals required to feed the large polar bear population in the area signal cause for management concern.     

Tundra degradation in the vicinity of the Polish Polar Station, Hornsund, Svalbard

Studies performed in the summers of 1979 and 1980 in the surroundings of the Polish Polar Station at Hornsund, Svalbard, aimed at determining the impact of the presence of a research station on its immediate tundra surroundings. The sources of environmental degradation were singled out; the ways of expansion of various contaminants and the degree of their harmfulness to the environment were evaluated. This gave insight into the extent of tundra degradation in the vicinity of a polar research station. It was found that the heaviest impacts were caused by changes in the chemical composition of the soil, resulting from spills of petroleum-derived fuels, and by transport which damaged the surface of the tundra.     

The diet of high-arctic seabirds in coastal and ice-covered, pelagic areas near the Svalbard archipelago

Food samples from six high-arctic seabird species were collected during spring and summer seasons between 1982 and 1990 in the Svalbard region. The material came from coastal localities on the island of Spitsbergen and the marginal ice zone in eastern Svalbard waters. Polar cod Boreogadus saida was the most frequently occurring prey in the ice-covered areas. Analysis of otoliths showed that most polar cod were one-or two-year olds. These year classes are known to associate with sea ice. Other ice-associated (sympagic) organisms, such as gammarid amphipods, were not found to be of high importance as prey for seabirds in the study area. However, the sea ice occurring in the area was mainly one year old. Such ice contains a less developed sympagic fauna than multi-year ice. The pelagic amphipod Parathemisto libellula , which is not sympagic but occurs in the water column, was also found to be an important prey in the marginal ice zone, especially for the Briinnich's guillemot Uria lomuia . The smallest of the seabird species studied, the little auk Alle alle , differed from the other five species in its diet, preying mainly upon smaller items such as copepods and young stages of amphipods, euphausiids and decapods. The diet of the various seabird species was in general more diverse in the coastal areas than in the marginal ice zone.     

Thermophilous molluscs on Svalbard during the Holocene and their paleoclimatic implications

Five species of guide fossils from the Holocene warm period in Svalbard are considered: Mytilus edulis, Modiolus modiolus, Arctica islandica, Littorina littorea and Zirphaea crispata . These are now extinct in Svalbard; Zirphaea crispata , especially, requires considerable higher water temperatures than occur there today. Known radiocarbon dates on Mytilus, Modiolus and Zirphala are given. Thirty-four dates on Mytilus edulis show that it lived in Svalbard from before 9500 BP to about 3500 BP, and probably again around 1000 BP. Five dates on Modiolus and Zirphaea indicate a climatic optimum in Svalbard from about 8700 BP to 7700 BP. The most favourable places then had conditions similar to the northeastern coast of Finnmark, northernmost Norway, today. Mytilus edulis is considered a good climate indicator, and a future warming of the marine climate in Svalbard could be indicated by its eventual re-immigration into the area.     

Halogenating activity in an artic population of brown macroalga Laminaria saccharina (L.) Lamour.

Several sections of the thallus of an artic population of brown macroalga Laminaria saccharina (L.) Lamour were collected during April-June 1995, in the Kongsfjorden are at Ny-Aålesund, Svalbard and investigated for halogenating activity. Brominating activity was found in the blade only, while iodinating activity occurred in the whole thallus of L. saccharina . The highest activity occurred in the blade, while lower activity was detected in the stipe and holdfast. No evidence for chlorinating activity was found. Halogenating activity, which clearly depends on temperature, showed increasing rates with increasing tempertures between 5 and 35°C.     

Source, density and composition of sympagic fauna in the Barents Sea

The sympagic fauna (= ice fauna) of the Barents Sea was investigated on nine different cruises in 1982-1988. Each cruise lasted from two to five weeks. Sampling techniques were based on scuba diving. The abundant sympagic organisms were the polar cod ( Boreogadus saida ) and the three amphipods Apherusa glacialis, Onisimus sp. and Gammarus wilkitzkii .
Mean biomass-values (wet weight) of the invertebrate sympagic fauna ranged from 0 to 2 g/m². Values above 0.001 g/m² were not recorded in five of the nine cruises. This is orders of magnitude lower than mean values recorded in multi-year ice north of Svalbard and in the Fram Strait where values between 1-10g/m² are quite common.
Apherusa glacialis seemed to have the best spreading capacity of the three most conspicuous amphipods. Gammarus wilkitzkii was most dependent on a passive transport with the ice.
Sympagic amphipods play an important part in a food chain from microalgae to polar cod and marine birds in areas covered with ice, especially in areas with multi-year ice.     

A comparison of climatic change between Svalbard in Arctic and the Qinghai Tibetan Plateau

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