Quasi-stationarity of centennial Northern Hemisphere midlatitude winter storm tracks

The winter storm activity on the Northern Hemisphere during the last one thousand years in a global climate simulation was analyzed by determining all midlatitude storms and their tracks, then consecutively clustering them for hundred years’ segments. Storm track clusters with longest lifetime and largest deepening rates are found over the oceans. The numbers of extratropical winter storms exhibit notable yearly variability but hardly any variability on centennial time scales. The clusters of these storm tracks also show only small differences between the centuries. The numbers of members in neighboring oceanic clusters are negatively correlated. A linear relationship was found between the numbers of members per storm track clusters over the Pacific or Atlantic Ocean and seasonal mean atmospheric circulation patterns by a canonical correlation analysis.     

Representation of Northern Hemisphere winter storm tracks in climate models

Northern Hemisphere winter storm tracks are a key element of the winter weather and climate at mid-latitudes. Before projections of climate change are made for these regions, it is necessary to be sure that climate models are able to reproduce the main features of observed storm tracks. The simulated storm tracks are assessed for a variety of Hadley Centre models and are shown to be well modelled on the whole. The atmosphere-only model with the semi-Lagrangian dynamical core produces generally more realistic storm tracks than the model with the Eulerian dynamical core, provided the horizontal resolution is high enough. The two models respond in different ways to changes in horizontal resolution: the model with the semi-Lagrangian dynamical core has much reduced frequency and strength of cyclonic features at lower resolution due to reduced transient eddy kinetic energy. The model with Eulerian dynamical core displays much smaller changes in frequency and strength of features with changes in horizontal resolution, but the location of the storm tracks as well as secondary development are sensitive to resolution. Coupling the atmosphere-only model (with semi-Lagrangian dynamical core) to an ocean model seems to affect the storm tracks largely via errors in the tropical representation. For instance a cold SST bias in the Pacific and a lack of ENSO variability lead to large changes in the Pacific storm track. Extratropical SST biases appear to have a more localised effect on the storm tracks.     

Extratropical cyclone variability in the Northern Hemisphere winter from the NCEP/NCAR reanalysis data

 The winter climatology of Northern Hemisphere cyclone activity was derived from 6-hourly NCEP/NCAR reanalysis data for the period from 1958 to 1999, using software which provides improved accuracy in cyclone identification in comparison to numerical tracking schemes. Cyclone characteristics over the Kuroshio and Gulfstream are very different to those over continental North America and the Arctic. Analysis of Northern Hemisphere cyclones shows secular and decadal-scale changes in cyclone frequency, intensity, lifetime and deepening rates. The western Pacific and Atlantic are characterized by an increase in cyclone intensity and deepening during the 42-year period, although the eastern Pacific and continental North America demonstrate opposite tendencies in most cyclone characteristics. There is an increase of the number of cyclones in the Arctic and in the western Pacific and a downward tendency over the Gulf Stream and subpolar Pacific. Decadal scale variability in cyclone activity over the Atlantic and Pacific exhibits south-north dipole-like patterns. Atlantic and Pacific cyclone activity associated with the NAO and PNA is analyzed. Atlantic cyclone frequency demonstrates a high correlation with NAO and reflects the NAO shift in the mid 1970s, associated with considerable changes in European storm tracks. The PNA is largely linked to the eastern Pacific cyclone frequencies, and controls cyclone activity over the Gulf region and the North American coast during the last two decades. Assessment of the accuracy of the results and comparison with those derived using numerical algorithms, shows that biases inherent in numerical procedures are not negligible. Received: 7 July 2000 / Accepted: 30 November 2000     

Predicting weather regime transitions in Northern Hemisphere datasets

A statistical learning method called random forests is applied to the prediction of transitions between weather regimes of wintertime Northern Hemisphere (NH) atmospheric low-frequency variability. A dataset composed of 55 winters of NH 700-mb geopotential height anomalies is used in the present study. A mixture model finds that the three Gaussian components that were statistically significant in earlier work are robust; they are the Pacific–North American (PNA) regime, its approximate reverse (the reverse PNA, or RNA), and the blocked phase of the North Atlantic Oscillation (BNAO). The most significant and robust transitions in the Markov chain generated by these regimes are PNA → BNAO, PNA → RNA and BNAO → PNA. The break of a regime and subsequent onset of another one is forecast for these three transitions. Taking the relative costs of false positives and false negatives into account, the random-forests method shows useful forecasting skill. The calculations are carried out in the phase space spanned by a few leading empirical orthogonal functions of dataset variability. Plots of estimated response functions to a given predictor confirm the crucial influence of the exit angle on a preferred transition path. This result points to the dynamic origin of the transitions.     

冬季北半球极涡强度对北太平洋风暴轴的影响

利用美国NCEP/NCAR再分析资料和中国国家气候中心北半球极涡强度指数资料,采用相关和合成分析等方法,初步分析了北半球极涡强度对北太平洋风暴轴的影响及其可能机制。研究发现,北半球极涡与北太平洋风暴轴之间有同步的强弱变化特征,在北半球极涡强度的高(低)值年,一般对应着风暴轴强度的增强(减弱),风暴轴区域扰动动能的加大(减弱),天气尺度涡动向极和向上的热量以及西风动量输送的显著增强(减弱)。进一步分析表明,极涡的异常变化可以通过改变欧亚大陆及其下游北太平洋上空的高度场,进而改变东亚西风急流的强度以及风暴轴上游的斜压性,从而对风暴轴产生影响。     

冬季北半球风暴轴的协同变化及其与大气环流的相互作用

基于1971—2016年NCEP/NCAR的逐日、逐月再分析资料,研究冬季北半球西伯利亚风暴轴(Siberian Storm Track,SIST)、北太平洋风暴轴(Pacific Storm Track,PST)和北大西洋风暴轴(Atlantic Storm Track,AST)的协同变化特征及其与大气环流的关系。结果表明:(1)三大风暴轴不仅各自的位置与强度变化存在显著相关性,风暴轴之间也存在一定的协同变化且年代际尺度上比年际尺度上更紧密。年际尺度上,SIST与AST的经度变化呈显著负相关,而PST和AST的协同性较差;年代际尺度上,SIST与PST的经、纬度变化均呈弱的负相关,SIST与AST的经度和强度变化均呈显著正相关,PST与AST的经、纬度变化均呈显著负相关。(2)由联合EOF分析得到北半球风暴轴的协同变化时空特征:在年际尺度上,第一模态主要表现为SIST偏弱(强),PST主体偏弱(强)、东南偏强(弱),AST略偏北(南)偏强(弱)但不显著的协同变化。PC1为正位相时,对应的大气环流异常为:500 hPa高度场上为太平洋北美(Pacific North America,PNA)型和欧亚(Eurasian,EU)型的正位相,东亚急流偏强且偏南;第二模态主要表现为SIST偏强(弱)且偏东(西),PST中东部偏南(北)、西部强度偏强(弱),AST偏强(弱)的协同变化。PC2为正位相时,对应的大气环流异常为:500 hPa高度场上为PNA型和大西洋东部(East Atlantic,EA)型的正位相,北美急流减弱;在年代际尺度上,第一模态主要表现为SIST偏西(东)且偏弱(强),PST偏东(西)且偏弱(强),AST偏西(东)且偏弱(强)的协同变化。PC1为正位相时,对应的大气环流异常为:500 hPa高度场上为西大西洋(West Atlantic,WA)型和EU型的正位相。第二模态主要表现为SIST偏强(弱)且偏北(南),PST偏南(北)且偏弱(强),AST北抬(南压)的协同变化。PC2为正位相时,对应的大气环流异常为:500 hPa高度场上为EU型和WA型的正位相,东亚急流强度加强且偏南,北美急流强度减弱。     

北半球冬季风暴轴与ENSO循环的关系及其能量平衡特征

利用欧洲中期天气预报中心的再分析资料,分析了北半球冬季对流层上层300 hPa面上风暴轴与ENSO循环的关系以及风暴轴的能量平衡特征.研究表明,由于El Nino年北太平洋的哈德莱环流增强,导致北太平洋西风急流向赤道和向东伸展,进而引起了北太平洋风暴轴的增强并向赤道和向东伸展;而La Nina年事件期间情形正好相反.在北大西洋,El Nino年其西风急流中心最大值有所减小,但整个西风急流区域有所扩大并向西和向赤道伸展,相应北大西洋风暴轴强度在El Nino年也有所减弱并向西和向赤道方向伸展;La Nina事件的情形正好相反.能量分析表明,斜压转换的正值中心位于风暴轴及其上游区域.在El Nino年,北太平洋斜压转换的正值中心向赤道和向下游伸展,而北大西洋斜压转换的正值中心向赤道和向西伸展,这与北太平洋风暴轴和北大西洋风暴的变化趋势是一致的.行星尺度扰动对斜压转换的贡献比天气尺度扰动的贡献要小,而行星尺度-天气尺度扰动的相互作用项对斜压转换的贡献更小.研究还表明,能量正压转换的正中心化于风暴轴的上游,负中心位于风暴轴区域.相对于La Nina年,El Nino年北太平洋东部的正压转换负值中心偏北,北美的正值中心位置偏南,而北大西洋的负值中心强度减弱范围变小.这些变化与从La Nina年剑El Nino年北太平洋和北大西洋风暴轴的变化是一致的.在能量的正压转换过程中,天气尺度扰动的贡献要大于行星尺度扰动,而行星尺度-天气尺度扰动的相互作用项的贡献更小.     

冬季北半球风暴轴的多尺度能量变化特征及其可能机制

基于1971—2016年NCEP/NCAR(美国环境预报中心和国家大气研究中心)的逐日再分析资料及NCPC(美国国家海洋和大气管理局气候预报中心)的海温、大气环流及海洋指数等资料通过多尺度能量分析(MS-EVA)等方法,把冬季北半球风暴轴看做一整体,分析了风暴轴区域多尺度的能量变化特征及其可能机制。主要结论概括如下:(1)多年气候平均状态下,风暴轴的动能来源主要表现为在风暴轴中上游先由低频尺度向天气尺度输送有效位能,随后在风暴轴主体区再由天气尺度有效位能转换为天气尺度动能,其中风暴轴西端可直接由低频尺度向天气尺度输送动能。(2)北半球三大风暴轴联合EOF结果表明:第一模态下,主要体现了北西伯利亚风暴轴与北太平洋风暴轴强度的减弱(增强),同时伴随着北大西洋风暴轴位置北抬(南压);第二模态下,主要体现了北西伯利亚风暴轴强度减弱(增强),同时北太平洋风暴轴位置北抬(南压)中东部强度增强(减弱),而北大西洋风暴轴位置南压(北抬)。(3)回归分析表明:北半球风暴轴异常在不同模态下与低频尺度环流联系密切。低频尺度波动可通过海温及西风急流等异常变化先影响风暴轴区域多尺度间的能量转换,进而影响风暴轴整体的异常变化。     

中国冬季最低气温观测与再分析资料的比较

运用EOF分解、线性趋势分析、方差分析、小波分析、相关分析等方法,从均值、长期变化、年际和年代际变化特征等方面对NCEP/NCAR(N1T)、NCEP/DOE(N2T)、ERA-Interim(ET)、JRA-25(JT)4种再分析资料集和194站观测资料集中1979—2012年我国冬季最低气温(WTMIN)进行比较。结果表明:(1)ET在再现观测冬季最低气温多年平均时最优;(2)除新疆北部和西南部以及东北北部有降低趋势外,我国大部分地区WTMIN有升高的趋势,N1T对观测温度长期变化趋势再现能力优于其他3种资料;(3)观测WTMIN在中国北方和高原地区年际和年代际变化大于南方地区,四种再分析WTMIN对我国冬季最低气温的年际和年代际变化的再现在不同区域各有所长,总体上以ET为优。(4)再分析资料在再现观测WTMIN年代际时间尺度上的能力相当,以ET最优,尤其是在我国中东部地区和新疆北部地区。N1T和N2T对东北地区观测冬季最低气温年际变化的再现能力较好,ET再现观测WTMIN在1990s之前,2005年之后的3~4 a变化周期特征时能力略优于其他3种资料。     

Precipitation climatology over India: validation with observations and reanalysis datasets and spatial trends

Changing rainfall patterns have significant effect on water resources, agriculture output in many countries, especially the country like India where the economy depends on rain-fed agriculture. Rainfall over India has large spatial as well as temporal variability. To understand the variability in rainfall, spatial–temporal analyses of rainfall have been studied by using 107 (1901–2007) years of daily gridded India Meteorological Department (IMD) rainfall datasets. Further, the validation of IMD precipitation data is carried out with different observational and different reanalysis datasets during the period from 1989 to 2007. The Global Precipitation Climatology Project data shows similar features as that of IMD with high degree of comparison, whereas Asian Precipitation-Highly-Resolved Observational Data Integration Towards Evaluation data show similar features but with large differences, especially over northwest, west coast and western Himalayas. Spatially, large deviation is observed in the interior peninsula during the monsoon season with National Aeronautics Space Administration-Modern Era Retrospective-analysis for Research and Applications (NASA-MERRA), pre-monsoon with Japanese 25 years Re Analysis (JRA-25), and post-monsoon with climate forecast system reanalysis (CFSR) reanalysis datasets. Among the reanalysis datasets, European Centre for Medium-Range Weather Forecasts Interim Re-Analysis (ERA-Interim) shows good comparison followed by CFSR, NASA-MERRA, and JRA-25. Further, for the first time, with high resolution and long-term IMD data, the spatial distribution of trends is estimated using robust regression analysis technique on the annual and seasonal rainfall data with respect to different regions of India. Significant positive and negative trends are noticed in the whole time series of data during the monsoon season. The northeast and west coast of the Indian region shows significant positive trends and negative trends over western Himalayas and north central Indian region.     

Reconstructed Northern Hemisphere annual temperature since 1671 based on high-latitude tree-ring data from North America

Annual Northern Hemisphere surface temperature departures for the past 300 yr were reconstructed using eleven tree-ring chronologies from high-latitude, boreal sites in Canada and Alaska, spanning over 90 degrees of longitude. This geographic coverage is believed to be adequate for a useful representation of hemispheric-scale temperature trends, as high northern latitudes are particularly sensitive to climatic change. We also present a reconstruction of Arctic annual temperatures. The reconstructions show a partial amelioration of the Little Ice Age after the early 1700's, an abrupt, severe renewal of cold in the early 1800's and a prolonged wanning since approximately 1840. These trends are supported by other proxy data. Similarities and differences between our Northern Hemisphere reconstruction and other large-scale proxy temperature records depend on such factors as the data sources, methods, and degree of spatial representation. Analyses of additional temperature records, as they become available, are needed to determine the degree to which each series represents fluctuations for the entire hemisphere. There appear to be relationships between trends observed in our Northern Hemisphere reconstruction and certain climatic forcing functions, including solar fluctuations, volcanic activity and atmospheric CO₂. In particular, our reconstruction supports the hypothesis that the global warming trend over the past century of increasing atmospheric CO₂ has exceeded the recent level of natural variability of the climate system.Of Columbia University Department of Geological Sciences.     

基于ISCCP观测的云量全球分布及其在NCEP再分析场中的指示

国际卫星云气候计划(ISCCP)已经积累了20多年的持续云观测资料,提供了迄今为止最具权威的全球尺度云量信息,为全面认识全球尺度云气候特征提供了有利条件.利用长期稳定的ISCCP D2云量资料,文中系统地分析了全球尺度总云量以及高、中、低云云量的空间分布特征.结果表明,全球总云量均值为66.5(单位:%),其中洋面71.6.陆面55.9.全球云量分布极不均衡,且海陆差异显著,洋面局部云量最高可达90,而包括南极大陆在内的所有陆面区域多为云量低值中心.高云和低云全球分布形式存在明显差异,其中陆面以高云为主,洋面低云相对较多.低云集中分布于太平洋东南部和东北部的近海岸地区以及南半球洋面,热带辐合带、南太平洋辐合带等大尺度强对流活动区内高云数量占优势.特别,在气候平均态上分离低云和高云区,并结合对NCEP再分析资料所提供环流背景场的分析,研究发现两类云所对应的垂直和水平风场具有明显的差异.高云区从低空到对流层顶为一致的强下降运动,低云区的中高层被上升气流所控制但近地面一般存在弱的上升运动.反映在水平辐散场上,两类云对应的辐散度在垂直方向上变化趋势相反,其中低云对应的典型背景场为低层辐散高空辐合.进一步考虑水汽因素,600与850 hPa水汽通量散度差对低云(负差异)和高云(正差异)的云量空间分布有较好的指示意义.     

Fast responses of Northern Hemisphere winter daily circulation to anthropogenic aerosols

Anthropogenic aerosols (AA) have significantly caused anomalous winter mean atmospheric circulation over the Northern Hemisphere, but the main daily patterns of winter large-scale circulation change are not well understood. Here a self-organizing map analysis is applied to identify the leading patterns in AA-induced winter daily geopotential height (Z) anomaly fields simulated by three atmospheric general circulation models, with a focus on fast adjustments. Two winter daily circulation response patterns with a synoptic time scale are found: one pattern shows concurring Z anomalies over North America and North Asia with the same sign and the Bering Sea seeing the opposite, resembling the Asia–Bering–North American teleconnection; while the other is the Arctic Oscillation-like pattern with similar Z anomalies over North Pacific and North Atlantic and the opposite over the Arctic region. The AA-induced anomalous precipitation over the tropics and anomalous synoptic eddy activities over the extratropical oceans concur to support and maintain these circulation anomaly patterns. The winter-mean climate responses to AA can be understood as a result of these daily anomaly patterns, especially over the higher latitudes. Specifically, the associated changes in surface air temperature (SAT) over the mid-high latitudes are caused by the AA-driven meridional movements of polar (cold and dry) airmass and midlatitude (warm and moist) airmass in the regions, mainly through the relevant surface downward longwave radiation. This study highlights the role of AA in altering daily weather patterns, which is not sufficiently captured by seasonal mean responses.     

北半球冬季极涡异常变化的时空特征

利用NCEP/NCAR再分析月平均高度场资料,计算了1948/1949-2009/2010年北半球冬季500～10 hPa的极涡环流指数,包括面积指数S、强度指数P和中心位置指数(λc,φc).分析了北半球冬季极涡在垂直高度上(共12层)的季、月气候态和异常态变化规律.结果表明:极涡面积和强度在不同高度上的大小变化不同,最大值出现的时间也存在差异,二者相关性不好,为两个相对独立的指数.极涡面积和强度的年代际变化趋势在上下层上也不一样,异常变化规律复杂;极涡中心位置上下层变化规律相同,主要在东半球80°N以北范围变化,在极点附近经度变化大,纬度变化小,纬度指数年代际变化明显,近10 a极涡明显偏南.从整体上看,极涡中心位置从500 hPa到10hPa形态上为逆时针、半径越向上越大的旋转变化.     

冬季北大西洋风暴轴的变化及其对西伯利亚高压的影响

采用1948—2010年NCEP/NCAR逐日再分析资料,计算大西洋风暴轴特征指数和西伯利亚高压特征指数,研究了冬季北大西洋风暴轴的变化及其对西伯利亚高压的影响。结果表明:风暴轴经度指数与西伯利亚高压纬度、强度、面积指数显著相关。风暴轴经度指数正异常月,大西洋天气尺度瞬变波活动向东扩展到欧洲乃至乌拉尔山以东,西伯利亚及东亚地区反气旋式波破碎加强,瞬变波对月平均气流的反馈作用使得欧亚大陆上空50°N以北西风加速、50°N以南西风减速;中纬度经向环流加强,气候态的西欧沿岸脊、欧洲东部槽、青藏高原北部脊均加强,东亚大槽减弱东移;在西伯利亚地区,暖空气向北输送加强,来自极区的冷空气南下减弱,致使西伯利亚及东亚地区温度偏高,西伯利亚高压面积减少、纬度偏南、强度减弱。风暴轴经度指数负异常月的情况则反之。     

中国探空观测与多套再分析资料气温序列的对比研究

为比较中国探空观测与再分析气温的差异,利用中国118站850—30 hPa经质量控制和均一化处理后逐月气温和NCEPv1、NCEPv2、ERA-40、ERA-Interim、JRA55、20CR、MERRA和CFSR等8套再分析月平均气温,通过对比1981—2010年探空观测与多套再分析气温序列的平均偏差、相关系数、标准差和变化趋势,分析两者在数值、年际变率、离散度及长期变化的差异。结果表明,中国探空温度原始序列存在较为显著的非均一性,均一化对原始气温序列总体为负订正,对流层上层至平流层下层(200—100 hPa)订正值最为显著。均一化气温去除了原始序列中由仪器换型和系统升级等因素导致的系统误差,与再分析气温相关较原始序列明显提高。再分析气温与均一化气温偏差约1℃,多数再分析气温较均一化气温在对流层偏低、平流层偏高。再分析与均一化气温年际变率较为一致,正相关达到显著。多数再分析与均一化气温均在对流层中低层呈上升趋势、平流层中层呈下降趋势。对流层上层和平流层下层不确定性较大。总体上,ERA-Interim、JRA55和MERRA与其他再分析相比更相近中国均一化探空气温。      

Notes on extended–range atmospheric prediction in the Northern Hemisphere winter

We examined the characteristic feature and predictability of low frequency variability (LFV) of the atmosphere in the Northern Hemisphere winter (January and February) by using the empirical orthogonal functions (EOFs) of the geopotential height at 500 hPa. In the discussion, we used the EOFs for geostrophic zonal wind (Uznl) and the height deviation from the zonal mean (Zeddy). The set of EOFs for Uznl and Zeddy was denoted as Uznl-1. Uznl-2, …, Zeddy-1, Zeddy-2…, respectively. We used the data samples of 396 pentads derived from 33 years of NMC, ECMWF and JMA analyses, from January 1963 to 1995. From the calculated scores for Uznl-1, Uznl-2, Zeddy-1, Zeddy-2 and so on we found that Uznl-1 and Zeddy-1 were statistically stable and their scores were more persistent than those of the other EOFs. A close relationship existed between the scores of Uznl-1 and those of Zeddy-1 30-day forecast experiments were carried out with the medium resolution version of JMA global spectral model for 20 cases in January and February for the period of 1984-1992. Results showed that Zeddy-1 was more predicta?ble than the other EOFs for Zeddy Considering these results, we argued that prediction of the Zeddy-1 was to be one of the main target of extended range forecasting     

青藏高原及周边地区大气水汽资源分布和季节变化特征分析

利用NVAP-M卫星资料和ERA-I再分析资料分析了1979—2008年海南岛夏半季、冬半季和年平均大气可降水量（PW）的时空分布特征及异常年成因。结果表明：海南岛及周围区域PW整体呈现南湿北干分布,有明显地区差异和季节变化。冬半季南海洋面大气可降水量达50 mm,随纬度增加,向北递减,五指山山区为低值中心,夏半季平均PW大于冬半季;海南岛8月平均值最大（55.05 mm）,年变化为一明显单峰结构。近30 a来,海南岛PW呈总体减少趋势,减少率为0.53 mm·（10 a）^-1;夏半季PW干湿异常年水汽通量存在较明显差异,来自孟加拉湾北部和南海的水汽输送及辐合是造成海南岛夏半季干湿年PW异常的关键因素。