A Comparison of Two Canopy Radiative Models in Land Surface Processes

This paper compares the predictions by two radiative transfer models-the two-stream approximation model and the generalized layered model （developed by the authors） in land surface processes -for different canopies under direct or diffuse radiation conditions. The comparison indicates that there are significant differences between the two models, especially in the near infrared （NIR） band. Results of canopy reflectance from the two-stream model are larger than those from the generalized model. However, results of canopy absorptance from the two-stream model are larger in some cases and smaller in others compared to those from the generalized model, depending on the cases involved. In the visible （VIS） band, canopy reflectance is smaller and canopy absorptance larger from the two-stream model compared to the generalized model when the Leaf Area Index （LAI） is low and soil reflectance is high. In cases of canopies with vertical leaf angles, the differences of reflectance and absorptance in the VIS and NIR bands between the two models are especially large. Two commonly occurring cases, with which the two-stream model cannot deal accurately, are also investigated. One is for a canopy with different adaxial and abaxial leaf optical properties; and the other is for incident sky diffuse radiation with a non-uniform distribution. Comparison of the generalized model within the same canopy for both uniform and non-uniform incident diffuse radiation inputs shows smaller differences in general. However, there is a measurable difference between these radiation inputs for a canopy with high leaf angle. This indicates that the application of the two-stream model to a canopy with different adaxial and abaxial leaf optical properties will introduce non-negligible errors.     

A generalized layered radiative transfer model in the vegetation canopy

In this paper, a generalized layered model for radiation transfer in canopy with high vertical resolution is developed. Differing from the two-stream approximate radiation transfer model commonly used in the land surface models, the generalized model takes into account the effect of complicated canopy morphology and inhomogeneous optical properties of leaves on radiation transfer within the canopy. In the model, the total leaf area index （LAI） of the canopy is divided into many layers. At a given layer, the influences of diffuse radiation angle distributions and leaf angle distributions on radiation transfer within the canopy are considered. The derivation of equations serving the model are described in detail, and these can deal with various diffuse radiation transfers in quite broad categories of canopy with quite inhomogeneons vertical structures and uneven leaves with substantially different optical properties of adaxial and abaxial faces of the leaves. The model is used to simulate the radiation transfer for canopies with horizontal leaves to validate the generalized model. Results from the model are compared with those from the two-stream scheme, and differences between these two models are discussed.     

A simplified scheme of the generalized layered radiative transfer model

In this paper, firstly, a simplified version （SGRTM） of the generalized layered radiative transfer model （GRTM） within the canopy, developed by us, is presented. It reduces the information requirement of inputted sky diffuse radiation, as well as of canopy morphology, and in turn saves computer resources. Results from the SGRTM agree perfectly with those of the GRTM. Secondly, by applying the linear superposition principle of the optics and by using the basic solutions of the GRTM for radiative transfer within the canopy under the condition of assumed zero soil reflectance, two sets of explicit analytical solutions of radiative transfer within the canopy with any soil reflectance magnitude are derived： one for incident diffuse, and the other for direct beam radiation. The explicit analytical solutions need two sets of basic solutions of canopy reflectance and transmittance under zero soil reflectance, run by the model for both diffuse and direct beam radiation. One set of basic solutions is the canopy reflectance αf （written as α1 for direct beam radiation） and transmittance βf （written as β1 for direction beam radiation） with zero soil reflectance for the downward radiation from above the canopy （i.e. sky）, and the other set is the canopy reflectance （αb） and transmittance βb for the upward radiation from below the canopy （i.e., ground）. Under the condition of the same plant architecture in the vertical layers, and the same leaf adaxial and abaxial optical properties in the canopies for the uniform diffuse radiation, the explicit solutions need only one set of basic solutions, because under this condition the two basic solutions are equal, i.e., αf = αb and βf = βb. Using the explicit analytical solutions, the fractions of any kind of incident solar radiation reflected from （defined as surface albedo, or canopy reflectance）, transmitted through （defined as canopy transmittance）, and absorbed by （defined as canopy absorptance） the canopy and other properties per     

Light quality distributions and spectral albedo of three maize canopies

Spectral attenuation patterns of eight narrow wavebands in the region of 0.4–1.1 μm were measured in three maize (Zea mays L.) canopies. Extinction coefficients were different for visible radiation (PAR) and near-infrared radiation (NIR), but varied little within these spectral regions. Approximately 95% of the visible radiation was intercepted by the canopy and of the available near-infrared 75–80% was intercepted by the canopy. Attenuation patterns and extinction coefficients were different for each of the canopies due to differences in leaf angle and vertical foliage distributions. Visible radiation penetration and albedo were more influenced by canopy morphology than was near-infrared radiation. A single mean value would adequately represent the albedos for each region. Albedo differences within the two spectral regions for the three canopies are attributed to the morphological characteristics of the canopies.     

Footprints and Fetches for Fluxes over Forest Canopies with Varying Structure and Density

A stochastic trajectory model was used to estimate scalar fluxfootprints in neutral stabilityfor canopies of varying leaf area distributions andleaf area indices. An analytical second-order closure model wasused to predict mean wind speed, second moments and the dissipationrate of turbulent kinetic energy within a forest canopy.The influence of source vertical profile on the flux footprint wasexamined. The fetch is longer for surface sourcesthan for sources at higher levels in the canopy. In order tomeasure all the flux components, and thus the total flux, with adesired accuracy, sources were located at the forest floor in thefootprint function estimation. The footprint functions werecalculated for five observation levels above the canopy top. Itwas found that at low observation heights both canopy density andcanopy structure affect the fetch. The higher abovethe canopy top the flux is measured, the more pronounced is the effectof the canopy structure. The forest fetch for flux measurements isstrongly dependent on the required accuracy: The 90% flux fetchis greater by a factor of two or more compared to the 75% fetch. Theupwind distance contributing 75% of flux is as large as 45 timesthe difference between canopy height and the observation heightabove the canopy top, being even larger for low observationlevels.     

A New Parameterization of Canopy Radiative Transfer for Land Surface Radiation Models

A new parameterization of canopy asymmetry factor on phase function,which is dependent on the leaf normal distribution and leaf reflection/transmission,is derived. This new parameterization is much more accurate than the existing scheme. In addition,the new solutions for both the diffuse and direct radiation can be obtained using the Eddington approximation. It is found that the direct radiation can be described as a function of the diffuse radiation. This new approach offers a substantial improvement in accuracy,as compared with the hemispheric constant method,for both isotropic and anisotropic cases. Given the analytical nature of the solution and its high accuracy,we recommend the new parameterization for application in land surface radiation modeling.     

双叶模型在冬小麦田冠层CO2通量多层模拟中的应用

综合考虑农田生态系统中水、热、CO2输送所涉及的大气、水文、生物等生物物理过程,以Farquhar等提出的叶片尺度光合作用生物化学过程机理模型为理论基础,对其进行空间尺度扩展,并改进冠层分层方法,建立了均匀农田与大气之间物质输送和能量交换的多层模式,在模式中运用双叶模型,同时考虑叶片氮素水平垂直差异,对2008年4—5月华北平原冬小麦生长旺季农田生态系统中冠层CO2通量进行了模拟研究,并利用涡度相关观测的通量数据对模型的有效性加以验证,结果表明:在冠层多层空间,小麦拔节至孕穗期和开花至乳熟期叶片氮含量随冠层高度的衰减系数分别为0.793(R2=0.698)和1.374(R2=0.728),冠层内叶片氮含量的空间分布可以用以相对累积叶面积指数为自变量的函数来描述;模型分别计算各层阴、阳叶的光截取、气孔传导、光合作用等,最终计算冠层上方CO2通量,冬小麦农田净生态系统生产力模拟值与实测值相关显著(R2=0.78),模拟的CO2通量日变化特征晴天昼间比阴雨天和夜间的效果好;在考虑丛聚影响的叶片非随机分布的密集农田中,阴叶对总初始生产力的贡献率在35.7%左右,对生产力贡献很重要。分层统计显示,作物最终产量的形成主要...     

Numerical simulation of sensitivities of snow melting to spectral composition of the incoming solar radiation

Snow albedo is an important factor influencing the snow surface energy budget and snow melting, yet uncertainties remain in the calculation of spectrally resolved snow surface albedo because the spectral composition (visible versus near infrared) of the incident solar radiation is seldom available. The influence of the spectral composition of the incoming solar radiation on the snow surface albedo, snow surface energy budget, and final snow ablation is investigated through sensitivity experiments of four snow seasons at two open sites in the Alps by using a multi-layer Snow-Atmosphere-Soil-Transfer scheme (SAST). Since the snow albedo in the near infrared (NIR) spectral band is significantly lower than that in the visible (VIS) band, and almost the entire NIR part of the solar radiation is absorbed in the top layer of the snow pack, given a fixed amount of incoming solar radiation, a lower VIS/NIR ratio implies that more NIR radiation is reaching the ground surface and more is absorbed by the top layer of the snow pack, therefore, speeding up the snow melting and increasing the surface runoff, although a lesser part of the solar radiation in the visible band is transmitted into and trapped by the sub-layer of the snow pack. The above VIS/NIR ratio effect of the incoming solar radiation can result in a couple of days difference in the timing of snow ablation and it becomes more significant in late spring when the total solar radiation is intensified with seasonal evolution. Snow aging also slightly intensifies this VIS/NIR ratio effect.     

Turbulence in Sparse, Organized Vegetative Canopies: A Large-Eddy Simulation Study

A large-eddy simulation study was performed to characterize turbulence in sparse, row-oriented canopies. This was accomplished by simulating a set of heterogeneous row-oriented canopies with varying row vegetation density and spacing. To determine the effects of heterogeneity, results were compared to horizontally homogeneous canopies with an equivalent ‘effective’ leaf area index. By using a proper effective leaf area index, plane-averaged mean velocities and bulk scaling parameters contained only small errors when heterogeneity was ignored. However, many cases had significantly larger second- and third-order velocity moments in the presence of heterogeneity. Some heterogeneous canopies also contained dispersive fluxes in the lower canopy that were over 20 % as large as the turbulent flux. Impacts of heterogeneity were most pronounced in the cases of large row leaf area density and widely spaced rows. Despite the substantial amount of open space in the sparse canopies, vertical velocity skewness and quadrant-hole analysis indicated that the flow behaved predominantly as a canopy layer even though integral length scales at the canopy top no longer followed mixing-layer scaling. This was supported by the fact that similar composite-averaged coherent structures could be readily identified in both the heterogeneous and homogeneous canopies. Heterogeneity had an effect on coherent structures, in that structure detection events were most likely to occur just upwind of the vegetation rows. In simulations with large row spacing, these structures also penetrated deeper into the canopy when compared to the equivalent homogeneous canopy.     

Improving the vegetation dynamic simulation in a land surface model by using a statistical-dynamic canopy interception scheme

Canopy interception of incident precipitation, as a critical component of a forest＇s water budget, can affect the amount of water available to the soil, and ultimately vegetation distribution and function. In this paper, a statistical-dynamic approach based on leaf area index and statistical canopy interception is used to parameterize the canopy interception process. The statistical-dynamic canopy interception scheme is implemented into the Community Land Model with dynamic global vegetation model （CLM-DGVM） to improve its dynamic vegetation simulation. The simulation for continental China by the land surface model with the new canopy interception scheme shows that the new one reasonably represents the precipitation intercepted by the canopy. Moreover, the new scheme enhances the water availability in the root zone for vegetation growth, especially in the densely vegetated and semi-arid areas, and improves the model＇s performance of potential vegetation simulation.     

A Vegetated Urban Canopy Model for Meteorological and Environmental Modelling

An urban canopy model is developed for use in mesoscale meteorological and environmental modelling. The urban geometry is composed of simple homogeneous buildings characterized by the canyon aspect ratio (h/w) as well as the canyon vegetation characterized by the leaf aspect ratio (σ _l ) and leaf area density profile. Five energy exchanging surfaces (roof, wall, road, leaf, soil) are considered in the model, and energy conservation relations are applied to each component. In addition, the temperature and specific humidity of canopy air are predicted without the assumption of thermal equilibrium. For radiative transfer within the canyon, multiple reflections for shortwave radiation and one reflection for longwave radiation are considered, while the shadowing and absorption of radiation due to the canyon vegetation are computed by using the transmissivity and the leaf area density profile function. The model is evaluated using field measurements in Vancouver, British Columbia and Marseille, France. Results show that the model quite well simulates the observations of surface temperatures, canopy air temperature and specific humidity, momentum flux, net radiation, and energy partitioning into turbulent fluxes and storage heat flux. Sensitivity tests show that the canyon vegetation has a large influence not only on surface temperatures but also on the partitioning of sensible and latent heat fluxes. In addition, the surface energy balance can be affected by soil moisture content and leaf area index as well as the fraction of vegetation. These results suggest that a proper parameterization of the canyon vegetation is prerequisite for urban modelling.     

The sensitivity of the water balance of a wet multilayer model pine canopy to variations in meteorological input

A multilayer canopy model of a pine forest is used to investigate the sensitivity of the water balance of the wet canopy to variations in meteorological input. The multilayer model does not take into account large-scale eddies, which are now considered to be of importance to canopy transport. It does, however, provide realistic simulations of wet canopy water balance and often predicts interception loss rates higher than those predicted by a unilayer model for the same meteorological input. Stable layers both within and above the canopy are often simulated during rainfall events, and these may help to spontaneously generate large-scale eddies or waves within forest canopies. The sensitivity study for a wet canopy suggests that low vapour pressure deficits and low wind speeds are associated with unstable surface conditions, and increasing values of both variables are associated with decreasing canopy drainage values and increasing evaporative losses. Low short- or long-wave radiation inputs are associated with stable surface conditions, and increasing values of both variables are associated with decreasing canopy drainage values and increasing evaporative losses. Increasing temperature is associated with increasing surface stability and increasing canopy drainage and decreasing evaporative losses. In real situations the tendency for increasing temperature to cause surface stability and decreased evaporative loss is probably compensated by the opposite effects of increasing short- or long-wave radiation. The model simulations suggest that wet forest canopies may be better ventilated at low temperatures, if other meteorological conditions are constant.     

Study Of `Soft' Night-Time Surface-Layer Decoupling Over Forest Canopies In A Land-Surface Model

The cause of a night-time land-surface model cold bias over forest canopies at threedifferent sites is studied in connection with various formulations of turbulent transferand the phenomenon of decoupling between the surface and the boundary layer. Themodel is the Canadian Land Surface Scheme (CLASS), a leading internationally knownmodel that has been tested over a variety of instrumented sites. The bias was first attributed to a deficient turbulent transfer and a few formulations were compared. One formulation is the classical log-linear profile with a sharp cut-off of the fluxes at a critical Richardsonnumber around 0.2, while in the other ones the flux decreases less rapidly with increasingstatic stability. While the surface-layer formulations have an impact on the modelled canopy temperature, other causes were found for the negative bias. The CLASS model neglected the heat capacity of the air trapped inside the canopy and its inclusion multiplied theeffective heat capacity of the canopy, by a factor ranging from 2.3 to 3.4 for the canopies studied, and reduced the error. A correction was also made to the air specific humidity at canopy level and the topsoil thermal conductivity was changed from that of organic matter to that of mineral soil. With these modifications, and using the incoming longwave radiative flux instead of the net longwave flux, the bias almost completely disappeared. Using ascheme with more heat transfer at large static stability, obtained by assuming that thefluxes decrease in magnitude with height in the surface layer, reduced the original biaswhile using the log-linear formulation amplified the cold bias. The impact of the turbulent transfer formulations is much reduced when they are applied to model runs in which the other above modifications have been made.The phenomenon of decoupling is presented and its understanding is complementedwith the new notions of `hard' versus `soft' decoupling and complete versus incompletedecoupling, depending on the impact decoupling has on the model and on the effectiveness of the model in achieving the decoupling. The geostrophic wind speed is a determiningfactor in separating cases of hard decoupling (rare) from the soft cases (frequent) while the completeness of the decoupling primarily depends on the form of the turbulent transfer curve as a function of static stability.     

植物冠面温度气候学模拟模型的初步研究

根据Monteith的植冠面热量平衡方程来讨论植冠面温度计算的气候学模型方法.讨论了:(1)植冠显热(H)、潜热(LE)和净辐射(Rn)各通量与气象台站观测资料的联系;(2)Rn项中晴天有效辐射(Eo)实验公式中湿度函数f(e)在中国应用时的季节修正;(3)植被-土壤热通量(G)的估算与其误差的影响;(4)根据气象台站的气候背景资料与参考植被的生物-生理特征参数,运用Newton-Raphson迭代方法求解植冠面温度;(5)模拟结果.     

北方玉米冠层光合有效辐射垂直分布及影响因子分析

玉米冠层内光合有效辐射(PAR)的大小直接影响冠层内叶片的光合作用,进而影响玉米净第一性生产力或作物产量的准确评估。为弄清玉米冠层内光合有效辐射的分布规律及其影响因子,基于锦州玉米农田生态系统于2006年生育期的光合有效辐射观测数据和叶面积指数动态观测数据,对玉米冠层光合有效辐射的垂直分布特征及其影响因子进行了分析。结果表明:玉米冠层内不同垂直层次叶片的PAR分布随生育期变化显著,与叶面积指数呈显著的负相关(R2=0.89);玉米冠层光合有效辐射的消光系数K值在生育期呈动态变化,约为0.76,且表现为苗期较大、生育后期较小。分析表明,在进行光合有效辐射及与此密切相关的光合作用模拟时,应考虑消光系数的动态变化。     

陆面过程中冠层四流辐射传输模式的模拟性能检验

利用实际观测资料检验新发展的植被冠层四流辐射传输模式的模拟性能.将浙江大学田间观测数据用于模式试验,其结果表明:在可见光波段,因叶片散射率值较小,四流模式和二流模式模拟结果差别不大,模拟的冠层反照率都接近观测值.这表明在可见光波段,二流模式已经能够较好模拟芯层反照率,四流模式能够提高的精度范围有限;在近红外波段,因叶片散射率值较大,两个模式模拟结果差别较明显,四流模式模拟的冠层反照率相对二流模式的模拟结果更接近观测值.利用第2次雪模式比较计划SNOWMIP资料和改进的10层陆面模式BATS进行耦合试验,将四流模式以及二流模式均耦合到该陆面模式中,其目的是为考察四流模式对陆面模式模拟地表反射太刚短波辐射通量的影响.耦合后得到的结果与SNOWMIP中加拿大BERMS草地站和森林站的观测资料进行了对比.对比结果表明,采用网流模式、二流模式、BATS原辐射传输模式后,耦合四流模式的陆面模式模拟地表反射太阳短波辐射通量最接近观测值.说明采用四流模式能够改善陆面模式对地表反射太阳短波辐射通啦的模拟.     

北方玉米冠层光合有效辐射垂直分布及影响因子分析

玉米冠层内光合有效辐射（PAR）的大小直接影响冠层内叶片的光合作用,进而影响玉米净第一性生产力或作物产量的准确评估。为弄清玉米冠层内光合有效辐射的分布规律及其影响因子,基于锦州玉米农田生态系统于2006年生育期的光合有效辐射观测数据和叶面积指数动态观测数据,对玉米冠层光合有效辐射的垂直分布特征及其影响因子进行了分析。结果表明：玉米冠层内不同垂直层次叶片的PAR分布随生育期变化显著,与叶面积指数呈显著的负相关（R2=0.89）;玉米冠层光合有效辐射的消光系数K值在生育期呈动态变化,约为0.76,且表现为苗期较大、生育后期较小。分析表明,在进行光合有效辐射及与此密切相关的光合作用模拟时,应考虑消光系数的动态变化。     

A Second-Order Closure for Neutrally Stratified Vegetative Canopy Flows

An existing second-order closure model is modified to include the effects on mean and turbulent motions of form and viscous drag in vegetative canopies. The additional physical mechanisms represented by the closure are viscous and pressure drag on canopy elements, their role in momentum absorption, in the creation of fine scale turbulent eddies and in enhancing the total viscous dissipation in the canopy airspace. Viscous dissipation is split into a standard 'isotropic contribution associated with the spectral eddy cascade and a foliage contribution associated with work against pressure and viscous drag on the foliage. Changes in the turbulent time scale that result from these mechanisms are included in the standard parameterisations of third moments and of the eddy cascade contribution to dissipation. The model is tested against a wind- tunnel 'wheat canopy, a corn canopy and a eucalypt canopy, a height range from 50 mm to 12.6 m. Model results show that the parameterisations of foliage interaction used in the closure are sufficiently robust to reproduce second-moment profiles within and above vegetative canopies to a high degree of accuracy without resorting to 'tuning of the model constants. The model also shows the natural emergence of two length scales, one associated with the familiar eddy cascade isotropic contribution to total dissipation and the other associated with the length scales of the canopy elements.     

Global radiation within corn

Global and net solar radiation profiles were measured by traversing sensors at four heights in a square-sown plot and a row plot of field corn on four relatively cloudless days in August 1972. The fluxes and their vertical distributions are discussed. A numerical model of the short-wave radiation fluxes in a canopy is presented. Using leaf area index and fixed leaf radiative properties, calculated values of radiation are within 10% of measurements in most instances. The performance under predominantly beam or diffuse radiation is similar and model values of crop albedo compare well with values calculated from radiation measurements above the crops.     

Mean Winds Through an Inhomogeneous Urban Canopy

The mean flow within inhomogeneous urban areas is investigated using an urban canopy model. The urban canopy model provides a conceptual and computational tool for representing urban areas in a way suitable for parameterisation within numerical weather prediction and urban air quality models. Average aerodynamic properties of groups of buildings on a neighbourhood scale can be obtained in terms of the geometry and layout of the buildings. These canopy parameters then determine the spatially averaged mean wind speeds within the canopy as a whole. Using morphological data for real cities, computations are performed for representative sections of cities. Simulations are performed to study transitions between different urban neighbourhoods, such as residential areas and city centres. Such transitions are accompanied by changes in mean building density and building height. These are considered first in isolation, then in combination, and the generic effects of each type of change are identified. The simulation of winds through a selection of downtown Los Angeles is considered as an example. An increase in canopy density is usually associated with a decrease in the mean wind speed. The largest difference between mean winds in canopies of different densities occurs near ground level. Winds generally decrease upon encountering a taller canopy of the same density, but this effect may be reversed very near the ground, with possible speed-ups if the canopy is especially tall. In the vicinity of a transition there is an overshoot in the mean wind speed in the bottom part of the canopy. Mechanisms for these effects are discussed.