Operating ranges of meteorological wind tunnels for the simulation of convective boundary layer (CBL) phenomena

The operating ranges of meteorological wind tunnels for convective boundary-layer (CBL) simulation are defined in this paper based on a review of the theoretical and practical limitations of the flow phenomena and the facilities available. Wind-tunnel operating ranges are limited by the dimensions of the simulated circulations and of the tunnel itself, the tunnel flow speed and turbulence processes, and the characteristics of the measurement instrumentation. When it is desired to simulate both the CBL and the behavior of other flows imbedded within the boundary layer, such as power-plant plume rise and dispersion, then additional constraints exist on the fluid modeling process. The capabilities of meteorological wind tunnels can also be extended through the judicious use of boundary and side wall flow controls.     

The characteristics of a laboratory produced turbulent Ekman layer

The characteristics of the atmospheric turbulent Ekman boundary layer have been qualitatively simulated in an annular rotating wind tunnel. Observed velocity spirals found to exist within the wind tunnel resembled qualitatively those found in the atmosphere in that a two-layer structure was evident, consisting of a log-linear portion topped by an outer spiral layer. The magnitude of the friction velocity u _* obtained from the log-linear profile agreed with that measured directly, i.e., that obtained from the relation: u _* = (u′w′)^1/2. Also, the effects of surface roughness on the characteristics of the boundary layer agreed with expected results. In cases where the parametric behaviour predicted by theory departed from the observed behaviour, the probable cause was the inherent size limitations of the wind tunnel. The ability to maintain dynamic similarity is constrained by the limited radius of curvature of the wind tunnel. The vertical distribution of turbulent intensity in the wind tunnel was found to agree qualitatively with an observed atmospheric distribution. Also, a vertical distribution of eddy diffusivity was calculated from tunnel data and found to give qualitatively what one might expect in the atmosphere.     

Prediction of wind properties in urban environments using artificial neural network

Artificial neural network (ANN) modeling has been performed to predict turbulent boundary layer characteristics for rough terrain based on experimental tests conducted in a boundary-layer wind tunnel to simulate atmospheric boundary layer using passive roughness devices such as spires, barriers, roughness elements on the floor, and slots in the extended test section. Different configurations of passive devices assisted to simulate urban terrains. A part of the wind tunnel test results are used as training sets for the ANN, and the other part of the test results are used to compare the prediction results of the ANN. Two ANN models have been developed in this study. The first one has been used to predict mean velocity, turbulence intensity, and model length scale factor. Results show that ANN is an efficient, accurate, and robust modeling procedure to predict turbulent characteristics of wind. In particular, it was found that the ANN-predicted wind mean velocities are within 4.7%, turbulence intensities are within 6.2%, and model length scale factors are within 3.8% of the actual measured values. In addition, another ANN model has been developed to predict instantaneous velocities that enables calculating the power spectral density of longitudinal velocity fluctuations. Results show that the predicted power spectra are in a good agreement with the power spectra obtained from measured instantaneous velocities.     

A wind-tunnel facility for simulating mountain and heated-island gravity waves

A wind tunnel was constructed to study mountain lee-wave phenomena and heated-island effects. The present wind tunnel appears to have several advantages over a towing tank facility for modeling atmospheric gravity-wave phenomena, i.e., non-uniform approach flows, stationary measuring conditions, variation of boundary temperature condition in the longitudinal direction, and no slip at the wall. Simple design criteria and characteristics of the present wind tunnel are discussed. A numerical program was utilized to explain peculiar standing-wave disturbances in the wind-tunnel test section. The above disturbances seemed unavoidable under the chosen mechanical constants. Nevertheless, a practical solution was found by extending the tunnel length.Postdoctoral Fellow, Princeton University, New Jersey, U.S.A.Associate Professor, Fluid Mechanics Program, Colorado State University, Fort Collins, U.S.A.     

A wind-tunnel experiment concerning atmospheric vortex streets

Cloud patterns, in the upper part of the atmospheric boundary layer, with eddies similar to Karman vortex streets, have been observed in the lee of several isolated islands. An experiment was conducted to see if major features of these atmospheric vortex streets and associated atmospheric conditions could be simulated in a wind tunnel. A visible vortex street was observed in a wind tunnel while six atmospheric simulation criteria were at least qualitatively satisfied. The physical modeling, the atmospheric data used, the simplifying assumptions and approximations required, as well as the wind tunnel methods and results are described.     

An Actively Controlled Wind Tunnel And Its Application To The Reproduction Of The Atmospheric Boundary Layer

An actively controlled wind tunnel equipped with multiple fansand airfoils has been developed, mainly for the purpose of reproducing the atmospheric boundary layer (ABL) for wind engineering applications. Various fluctuating flows can be achieved in this wind tunnel by altering the input data of the fans and airfoils through computer control. In this study, the ABL is physically simulated in this wind tunnel, and particular attention ispaid to the simulation of the profile of Reynolds stress. The method of generating the fluctuating flow and the experimental results of reproducing the ABL are presented. As the results show, the spatial distribution of Reynolds stress is satisfactorily simulated, and the profiles of other statisticalturbulent parameters, such as mean velocity, turbulent intensity, integral scale and power spectrum are successfully reproduced simultaneously.     

Characteristics of natural wind simulations in the TUM boundary layer wind tunnel

The boundary layer wind tunnel at the Technische Universit?t München was tested for atmospheric boundary layer (ABL) simulations. The ABLs developing above rural, suburban, and urban terrains were reproduced using the Counihan method, i.e., castellated barrier wall, vortex generators, and a fetch of surface roughness elements. A series of flow-characteristic evaluations was performed to investigate the flow development and uniformity. Experimental results presented as mean velocity, turbulence intensity, integral length scale of turbulence, Reynolds stress, and power spectral density of velocity fluctuations were compared with the ESDU data and/or theoretical models. Generated ABL wind-tunnel simulations compare well with the rural, suburban, and urban ABLs. In the test section area used for experiments on structural models, the ABL simulation is developed and uniform. Results of this study indicate the boundary layer wind tunnel at the Technische Universit?t München can be successfully employed in a broad spectrum of engineering, environmental, and micrometeorological studies, where it is required to accurately reproduce ABL characteristics.     

Intermittent Bursting of Turbulence in a Stable Boundary Layer with Low-level Jet

The atmospheric stable boundary layer (SBL) with a low-level jet is simulated experimentally using a thermally stratified wind tunnel. The turbulence structure and flow characteristics are investigated by simultaneous measurements of velocity and temperature fluctuations and by flow visualization. Attention is focused on the effect of strong wind shear due to a low-level jet on stratified boundary layers with strong stability. Occasional bursting of turbulence in the lower portion of the boundary layer can be found in the SBL with strong stability. This bursting originates aloft away from the surface and transports fluid with relatively low velocity and temperature upward and fluid with relatively high velocity and temperature downward. Furthermore, the relationship between the occurrence of turbulence bursting and the local gradient Richardson number (Ri) is investigated. The Ri becomes larger than the critical Ri, Ri_cr = 0.25, in quiescent periods. On the other hand, the Ri number becomes smaller than Ri_cr during bursting events.     

Operating ranges of mesoscale numerical models and meteorological wind tunnels for the simulation of sea and land breezes

The operating ranges of mesoscale numerical models and meteorological wind tunnels for sea- and land-breeze simulations are defined in this paper based on a review of the theoretical and practical limitations of these two approaches. Numerical-model operating ranges are limited by the choice of governing equations, the numerical methods used to solve the governing equations, the scales of the surface or atmospheric forcing and the atmospheric response, the specified grid resolution and domain size, and the available computer resources. Wind-tunnel operating ranges are limited by the dimensions of the simulated circulations and of the tunnel itself, the tunnel flow speed and turbulence characteristics, the temperature gradients within the tunnel, the lack of Coriolis force and moist processes, and the characteristics of the measurement instrumentation. The operating ranges of these two simulation methods are shown to overlap. In this common range, results of simulations from both approaches can be compared so as to strengthen the validity of the results and to help in the development and improvement of parameterizations of physical processes in numerical models. In addition, the coupling of meteorological wind tunnels and mesoscale numerical models offers a larger range of operating conditions than can be achieved by either approach alone. Together, they can be used in a hybrid form to predict atmospheric conditions at the scale of a few meters for complex terrain (e.g., buildings, hills, etc.) within larger mesoscale atmospheric flow regimes. In the case of sea and land breezes, the sea-land transition zone and coastal internal boundary layer can be studied using both approaches.     

风沙流中风速廓线的数值模拟与实验验证

如何描述风沙流中被风沙运动改变了的风速廓线是风沙相互作用研究中的关键问题之一.该文中将跃移风沙流视为一种颗粒拟流体,将跃移颗粒对气流产生的阻力用颗粒流的阻力系数来表达,建立了描写两场相互作用的数学模型.颗粒流的阻力系数采用了前人在液态流化床研究中得出的阻力系数表达形式,通过引入一个修正系数,使其适用于风沙流(气-固两相流).将风沙边界层划分为跃移颗粒所产生的阻力不可忽略的内边界层和跃移颗粒阻力可以忽略但受内边界层影响的外边界层,分别建立了内边界层和外边界层的风速廓线表达式.应用所建立的数学模型,根据由风洞实验测定的跃移风沙流的浓度分布和速度分布资料,计算了跃移风沙流中的风速廓线,并与风洞实测结果进行了对比.结果表明,计算风速廓线与实测风速廓线吻合得比较好,在半对数图上均为上凸的曲线,有别于无风沙运动时的直线.跃移边界层外风速分布可较好地用对数函数来描述.对风沙流中风速廓线的进一步分析证实了风沙物理学奠基人Bagnold在其早期观测风沙流中的风速廓线时提出的"结点现象"(Bagnold结),该结点的高度随风速的增大而升高,随颗粒粒径的增大而降低.根据数值模拟和模拟实验,可以认为有风沙运动的动床剪切风速是综合反映风场与跃移层以及地表之间相互作用的物理量.     

Boundary-layer flow structures associated with particle reentrainment

Measurements of near-surface longitudinal and vertical wind velocity components associated with particle reentrainment from a flat surface have been examined in a wind tunnel. Sparsely covered particle beds were used to assure that observed reentrainment events resulted primarily from the action of fluid forces. Characteristic velocity patterns were found to be associated with a majority of particle reentrainment events examined. These characteristics have been categorized and examined as ensemble averages. The flow pattern most frequently observed during particle reentrainment was termed Ejection-Sweep (E-S) and is very similar to organized fluid motions previously observed in laboratory flows and in the atmospheric boundary layer. A simple two-tiered E-S pattern recognition scheme is described which strives to identify particle reentrainment events objectively based on flow characteristics alone. The first step is to identify potential E-S patterns using criteria which identify a characteristic longitudinal acceleration, and the second step is to use threshold values of pattern characteristics to accept or reject these first-tier patterns. Pattern recognition results are presented in terms of the ability to identify reentrainment events versus false identifications, and show an exponential growth in false identifications with an increasing number of reentrainment events identified.     

Scale effects in wind tunnel modeling of an urban atmospheric boundary layer

Precise urban atmospheric boundary layer (ABL) wind tunnel simulations are essential for a wide variety of atmospheric studies in built-up environments including wind loading of structures and air pollutant dispersion. One of key issues in addressing these problems is a proper choice of simulation length scale. In this study, an urban ABL was reproduced in a boundary layer wind tunnel at different scales to study possible scale effects. Two full-depth simulations and one part-depth simulation were carried out using castellated barrier wall, vortex generators, and a fetch of roughness elements. Redesigned “Counihan” vortex generators were employed in the part-depth ABL simulation. A hot-wire anemometry system was used to measure mean velocity and velocity fluctuations. Experimental results are presented as mean velocity, turbulence intensity, Reynolds stress, integral length scale of turbulence, and power spectral density of velocity fluctuations. Results suggest that variations in length-scale factor do not influence the generated ABL models when using similarity criteria applied in this study. Part-depth ABL simulation compares well with two full-depth ABL simulations indicating the truncated vortex generators developed for this study can be successfully employed in urban ABL part-depth simulations.     

A wind tunnel study of air flow in waving wheat: Single-point velocity statistics

We analyse single-point velocity statistics obtained in a wind tunnel within and above a model of a waving wheat crop, consisting of nylon stalks 47 mm high and 0.25 mm wide in a square array with frontal area index 0.47. The variability of turbulence measurements in the wind tunnel is illustrated by using a set of 71 vertical traverses made in different locations, all in the horizontally-homogeneous (above-canopy) part of the boundary layer. Ensemble-averaged profiles of the statistical moments up to the fourth order and profiles of Eulerian length scales are presented and discussed. They are consistent with other similar experiments and reveal the existence of large-scale turbulent coherent structures in the flow. The drag coefficient in this canopy as well as in other reported experiments is shown to exhibit a characteristic height-dependency, for which we propose an interpretation. The velocity spectra are analysed in detail; within and just above the canopy, a scaling based on fixed length and velocity scales (canopy height and mean horizontal wind speed at canopy top) is proposed. Examination of the turbulent kinetic energy and shear stress budgets confirms the role of turbulent transport in the region around the canopy top, and indicates that pressure transport may be significant in both cases. The results obtained here show that near the top of the canopy, the turbulence properties are more reminiscent of a plane mixing layer than a wall boundary layer.     

Analysis of similarity laws in a pressure-gradient boundary layer over gentle obstacles

The pressure-gradient similarity theory has been applied to neutral boundary layers perturbed by the presence of 2-D topography, using wind tunnel data for tuning and comparison. It turns out that the vertical structure of the inner part of the boundary layer can be defined in terms of scales determined from the local horizontal surface pressure gradient and surface stress. The outer structure, on the other hand, is affected only by the upstream conditions.The similarity formulas are shown to be applicable to field cases, using simple model evaluations of the driving parameters. Proper data sets are almost totally lacking at present, limiting the possibility of detailed comparisons with real data.     

山地露天矿自然通风风流与湍流结构的数值模拟

利用建立的三维非力能量闭合的大气边界层数值模式，研究了中性层结条件下某露天矿自然通风的风流和湍流结构特征及影响因子。研究表明：坑内水平风场在坑底或采壁处受地形的影响很大，在矿采深与开口宽度比较小或者来流风速随高度的切变不大时，坑内气流为平直型，有利于通风；反之坑内则形成环流，且在环流范围内较大的湍能，不利于通风，易产生高浓度的污染物。本模式模拟的结果还与风洞模拟和高阶闭合模式模拟的结果作了检验比较     

北京商务中心风环境风洞实验研究

北京商务中心区(Central Business District,CBD)规划于故宫东部约5 km地带,涵盖面积约4 km2,最高建筑物超过300 m.采用风洞刷蚀技术结合朝阳气象站常规资料对CBD行人风环境进行研究,结果表明:(1)在冬春季西北大风时,CBD高大建筑物附近出现局地8级以上大风的概率为0.114%,相当于每年发生5.0次,超过了每年小于1.0次的可接收评估准则,将会影响行人舒适度和安全;偏南风符合行人舒适度评估准则,不会造成明显风环境问题.(2)夏季白天偏南风盛行,在CBD东西两侧建筑物密集区域出现小风(风速低于1.5 m s-1)的概率高达22%,可能造成较严重的局地空气污染.     

An experimental investigation of a wind-generated suspension of particulate matter from a tailings disposal area

A wind tunnel investigation of the wind erosion of uranium mine-tailings material typical of a northern Ontario site has been carried out. The aim of the study was to measure the effects of various parameters, including mean and turbulent wind characteristics of the boundary layer and surface moisture content, upon the erosion process. The analysis of experimental data has yielded a mathematical model for predicting the net vertical mass fluxes. The results show that the dry vertical flux is proportional to u _* ^2.3and the wet flux to u _* ^5.0 Partical size analysis was also carried out.     

Laboratory and Numerical Studies of the Convective Boundary Layer Capped by a Strong Inversion

The convective boundary layer (CBL) with a wide range of stability is simulated experimentally using a thermally stratified wind tunnel, and numerically by direct numerical simulation (DNS). The turbulence structures and flow characteristics of various CBL flows, capped by a strong temperature inversion and affected by surface shear, are investigated. The various vertical profiles of turbulence statistics similar to those from the observed CBL in the field are successfully simulated in both the wind-tunnel experiment and in DNS. The comparison of the wind-tunnel data and DNS results with those of atmospheric observations and water-tank studies shows the crucial dependence of the turbulence statistics in the upper part of the layer on the strength of the inversion layer, as well as the modification of the CBL turbulence regime by the surface shear.     

Estimation of liquid water content effects on the air temperature measurements in the clouds based on the wind tunnel experiments

Presented are the results of experiments carried out in the wind tunnel and aimed at the investigation of characteristics of high-frequency aircraft thermometer constructed for studying the atmosphere from the board of the aircraft-laboratory. It is demonstrated that the values of recovery coefficient of the thermometer obtained both in the wind tunnel and after numerical experiments practically coincided with the values that have been measured before, during the flight testing. The flow with the specified values of liquid droplet content that was created in the wind tunnel, enabled to determine both the degree of effects made by the cloud on the measured temperature and its fluctuations and the value of the coefficient for introducing the correction to the temperature and its fluctuations in the cloud. It is shown that the taking account of effects made by liquid water content on the measured temperature is absolutely necessary for the correct interpretation of aircraft-based results of studying the thermodynamic structure of clouds.     

凹坑地形风流结构对污染物散布的模拟研究

利用建立的三维非静力高分辨率高阶湍流闭合模式与随机游动扩散模式研究了一个深凹露天矿区污染物散布的规律,同时在风洞中进行了示踪实验。结果表明,由于凹坑内复环流结构的存在,使得坑内污染物浓度较大,且浓度最大值出现在源的上风侧。数值试验与风洞试验结果吻合较好。