Temporal and spatial variations of post-seismic deformation following the 1999 Chi-Chi, Taiwan earthquake

We use GPS displacements collected in the 15 months after the 1999 Chi-Chi, Taiwan earthquake  ( M _w 7.6)  to evaluate whether post-seismic deformation is better explained by afterslip or viscoelastic relaxation of the lower crust and upper mantle. We find that all viscoelastic models tested fail to fit the general features in the post-seismic GPS displacements, in contrast to the satisfactory fit obtained with afterslip models. We conclude that afterslip is the dominant mechanism in the 15-month period, and invert for the space–time distribution of afterslip, using the Extended Network Inversion Filter. Our results show high slip rates surrounding the region of greatest coseismic slip. The slip-rate distribution remains roughly stationary over the 15-month period. In contrast to the limited coseismic slip on the décollement, afterslip is prominent there. Maximum afterslip of 0.57 m occurs downdip and to the east of the hypocentral region. Afterslip at hypocentral depths is limited to the southern part of the main shock rupture, with little or no slip on the northern section where coseismic slip was greatest. Whether this results from along strike variations in frictional properties or dynamic conditions that locally favour stable sliding is not clear. In general, afterslip surrounds the area of greatest coseismic slip, consistent with post-seismic slip driven by the main shock stress change. The total accumulated geodetic afterslip moment is  3.8 × 10¹⁹ N m  , significantly more than the seismic moment released by aftershocks,  6.6 × 10¹⁸ N m  . Afterslip and aftershocks appear to have different temporal evolutions and some spatial correlations, suggesting that aftershock rates may not be completely controlled by the rate of afterslip.     

Tsunami as agents of geomorphic change in mid-ocean reef islands

Low-lying atoll islands appear highly vulnerable to the effects of climate change and extreme natural events. Potentially disastrous effects of future sea-level rise have been inferred in many studies, and the actual impacts of tropical storms on island destruction and formation have been well documented. In contrast, the role of tsunami in the geomorphic development of atoll islands has not been investigated. The Sumatran earthquake of 26 December 2004 generated a tsunami that reached the Maldives 2500 km away, with waves up to 2.5 m high. Observations on the geomorphic changes resulting from the tsunami are detailed here, based on pre-and post-tsunami profile measurements of island, beach and reef topography, and GPS surveys of the planform shape of islands and beaches of 11 uninhabited islands in South Maalhosmadulu atoll, Maldives. Erosional and depositional impacts were observed on all islands and these have been quantified. In general the changes were of a minor nature with a maximum reduction in island area of 9% and average of 3.75%. Rather, the tsunami accentuated predictable seasonal oscillations in shoreline change, including localised erosion reflected in fresh scarps and seepage gullies. Depositional features in the form of sand sheets and sand lobes emplaced on the vegetated island surfaces provide clear evidence that the tsunami waves washed over parts of all the islands. Both erosional scarps and overwash deposits were concentrated at the tsunami-exposed eastern sides of the islands. Impacts on leeward shores were primarily accretionary, in the form of spit and cuspate foreland extension. Whereas the nature and magnitude of intra-and inter-island impacts was variable, an east to west decline in aggregate effects was noted. Detailed consideration of the morphodynamic interaction between the tsunami waves and island morphology, show that this cross-atoll gradient resulted not just from the reduction in tsunami energy as it passed through the atoll, but also from variations in elevation of the encircling island ridge, and the quantity and distribution of sediment in the antecedent beach. A conceptual model identifying the sequence of changes to individual islands supports the observational data and the pattern of geomorphic changes resulting from the tsunami. This model leads to consideration of the longer-term impacts of the tsunami on the future stability of islands. Four scenarios are presented, each of which has a different island-beach sediment budget, and different relaxation time to achieve dynamic equilibrium.     

Viscoelastic relaxation and long-lasting after-slip following the 1997 Umbria-Marche (Central Italy) earthquakes

We combine Global Positioning System (GPS) measurements with forward modelling of viscoelastic relaxation and after-slip to study the post-seismic deformation of the 1997 Umbria-Marche (Central Apennines) moderate shallow earthquake sequence. Campaign GPS measurements spanning the time period 1999–2003 are depicting a clear post-seismic deformation signal. Our results favour a normal faulting rupture model where most of the slip is located in the lower part of the seismogenic upper crust, consistent with the rupture models obtained from the inversion of strong motion data. The preferred rheological model, obtained from viscoelastic relaxation modelling, consists of an elastic upper crust, underlain by a transition zone with a viscosity of 10¹⁸ Pa s, while the rheology of deeper layers is not relevant for the observed time-span. Shallow fault creep and after-slip at the base of the seismogenic upper crust are the first order processes behind the observed post-seismic deformation. The deep after-slip, below the fault zone at about 8 km depth, acting as a basal shear through localized time-dependent deformation, identifies a rheological discontinuity decoupling the seismogenic upper crust from the low-viscosity transition zone.     

Post-seismic relaxation following the great 2004 Sumatra-Andaman earthquake on a compressible self-gravitating Earth

The   M _w γ 9.0  2004 December 26 Sumatra-Andaman and   M _w = 8.7  2005 March 28 Nias earthquakes, which collectively ruptured approximately 1800 km of the Andaman and Sunda subduction zones, are expected to be followed by vigorous viscoelastic relaxation involving both the upper and lower mantle. Because of these large spatial dimensions it is desirable to fully account for gravitational coupling effects in the relaxation process. We present a stable method of computing relaxation of a spherically-stratified, compressible and self-gravitating viscoelastic Earth following an impulsive moment release event. The solution is cast in terms of a spherical harmonic expansion of viscoelastic normal modes. For simple layered viscoelastic models, which include a low-viscosity oceanic asthenosphere, we predict substantial post-seismic effects over a region several 100s of km wide surrounding the eastern Indian Ocean. We compare observed GPS time-series from ten regional sites (mostly in Thailand and Indonesia), beginning in 2004 December, with synthetic time-series that include the coseismic and post-seismic effects of the 2004 December 26 and 2005 March 28 earthquakes. A viscosity structure involving a biviscous (Burgers body) rheology in the asthenosphere explains the pattern and amplitude of post-seismic offsets remarkably well.     

Effect of 3-D viscoelastic structure on post-seismic relaxation from the 2004 M= 9.2 Sumatra earthquake

The 2004 M = 9.2 Sumatra–Andaman earthquake profoundly altered the state of stress in a large volume surrounding the ∼1400 km long rupture. Induced mantle flow fields and coupled surface deformation are sensitive to the 3-D rheology structure. To predict the post-seismic motions from this earthquake, relaxation of a 3-D spherical viscoelastic earth model is simulated using the theory of coupled normal modes. The quasi-static deformation basis set and solution on the 3-D model is constructed using: a spherically stratified viscoelastic earth model with a linear stress–strain relation; an aspherical perturbation in viscoelastic structure; a 'static' mode basis set consisting of Earth's spheroidal and toroidal free oscillations; a "viscoelastic" mode basis set; and interaction kernels that describe the coupling among viscoelastic and static modes. Application to the 2004 Sumatra–Andaman earthquake illustrates the profound modification of the post-seismic flow field at depth by a slab structure and similarly large effects on the near-field post-seismic deformation field at Earth's surface. Comparison with post-seismic GPS observations illustrates the extent to which viscoelastic relaxation contributes to the regional post-seismic deformation.     

Source tomography by simulated annealing using broad-band surface waves and geodetic data: application to the Mw= 8.1 Chile 1995 event

We invert surface-wave and geodetic data for the spatio-temporal complexity of slip during the M _w =8.1 Chile 1995 event by simulated annealing. This quasi-global inversion method allows for a wide exploration of model space, and retains the non-linearity of the source tomography problem. Complex source spectra are obtained from 5 to 45 mHz from first- and second-orbit fundamental-mode Rayleigh waves using an empirical Green's function cross-correlation technique. Coseismic displacement vectors were measured at 10 GPS sites near Antofagasta. They are part of a French-Chilean experiment which monitors the Northern Chile seismic gap. The spectra, together with the geodetic data, are inverted for the moment distribution on a 2-D dipping fault, under the physical constraints of slip positivity and causality. Marginal a posteriori distributions of the model parameters are obtained from several independently inverted solutions. In general, features of the slip model are well resolved. Data are well fitted by a purely unilateral southward rupture with a nearly uniform velocity around 2.5–3.0 km s⁻¹, and a total duration of 65 s. Several regions of moment release were imaged, one near the hypocentre, a major one 80 km south of it and a minor one 160 km south of it. The major patch of moment release seemed to have propagated to relatively shallow depths near the trench, 100 km SSW of the epicentre. The region of major slip is located updip of the 1987, M _w =7.5 earthquake, suggesting a causal relationship. Most of the slip occurred updip of the hypocentre (36 km), but the entire coupled plate interface (20–40 km) ruptured during the Chile 1995 event.     

Coseismic deformation revealed by inversion of strong motion and GPS data: the 2003 Chengkung earthquake in eastern Taiwan

A moderate earthquake of   M _w= 6.8  occurred on 2003 December 10. It ruptured the Chihshang Fault in eastern Taiwan which is the most active segment of the Longitudinal fault as a plate suture fault between the Luzon arc of the Philippine Sea plate and the Eurasian plate. The largest coseismic displacements were 13 cm (horizontal) and 26 cm (vertical). We analyse 40 strong motion and 91 GPS data to model the fault geometry and coseismic dislocations. The most realistic shape of the Chihshang fault surface is listric in type. The dipping angle of the seismic zone is steep (about 60°–70°) at depths shallower than 10 km and then gradually decreases to 40°–50° at depths of 20–30 km. Thus the polygonal elements in Poly3D are well suited for modelling complex surfaces with curving boundaries. Using the strong motion data, the displacement reaches 1.2 m dip-slip on the Chihshang Fault and decreases to 0.1 m near surface. The slip averages 0.34 m, releasing a scalar moment of 1.6E26 dyne-cm. For GPS data, our model reveals that the maximal dislocation is 1.8 m dip-slip. The dislocations decrease to 0.1 m near the surface. The average slip is 0.48 m, giving a scalar moment of 2.2E26 dyne-cm. Regarding post-seismic deformation, a displacements of 0.5 m were observed near the Chihshang Fault, indicating the strain had not been totally released, as a probable result of near-surface locking of the fault zone.     

Coseismic slip model of the 2007 August Pisco earthquake (Peru) as constrained by Wide Swath radar observations

The Pisco earthquake ( M _w 8.0; 2007 August 15) occurred offshore of Peru's southern coast at the subduction interface between the Nazca and South American plates. It ruptured a previously identified seismic gap along the Peruvian margin. We use Wide Swath InSAR observations acquired by the Envisat satellite in descending and ascending orbits to constrain coseismic slip distribution of this subduction earthquake. The data show movement of the coastal regions by as much as 85 cm in the line-of-sight of the satellite. Distributed-slip model indicates that the coseismic slip reaches values of about 5.5 m at a depth of ∼18–20 km. The slip is confined to less than 40 km depth, with most of the moment release located on the shallow parts of the interface above 30 km depth. The region with maximum coseismic slip in the InSAR model is located offshore, close to the seismic moment centroid location. The geodetic estimate of seismic moment is 1.23 × 10²¹ Nm ( M _w 8.06), consistent with seismic estimates. The slip model inferred from the InSAR observations suggests that the Pisco earthquake ruptured only a portion of the seismic gap zone in Peru between 13.5° S and 14.5° S, hence there is still a significant seismic gap to the south of the 2007 event that has not experienced a large earthquake since at least 1687.     

Dynamic rupture and stress change in a normal faulting earthquake in the subducting Cocos plate

A large nearly vertical, normal faulting earthquake ( M _w = 7.1) took place in 1997 in the Cocos plate, just beneath the ruptured fault zone of the great 1985 Michoacan thrust event ( M _w = 8.1). Dynamic rupture and resultant stress change during the 1997 earthquake have been investigated on the basis of near-source strong-motion records together with a 3-D dynamic model.
Dynamically consistent waveform inversion reveals a highly heterogeneous distribution of stress drop, including patch-like asperities and negative stress-drop zones. Zones of high stress drop are mainly confined to the deeper, southeastern section of the vertical fault, where the maximum dynamic stress drop reaches 280 bars (28 MPa). The dynamically generated source time function varies with location on the fault, and yields a short slip duration, which is caused by a short scalelength of stress-drop heterogeneities. The synthetic seismograms calculated from the dynamic model are generally consistent with the strong-motion velocity records in the frequency range lower than 0.5 Hz.
The pattern of stress-drop distribution appears, in some sense, to be consistent with that of coseismic changes in shear stress resulting from the 1985 thrust event. This consistency suggests that the stress transfer from the 1985 event to the subducting plate could be one of the possible mechanisms that increased the chance of the occurrence of the 1997 earthquake.     

Implications of stress concentration on a strike-slip fault in an elastic plate subject to basal shear stress

Summary We consider a long strike-slip fault in a lithosphere modelled as an elastic slab. To the base of the slab a shear stress distribution is applied which simulates the viscous drag exerted by the asthenosphere. The resulant stress on the fault plane may directly fracture the lithosphere in its brittle upper portion; alternatively it may give rise at first to a stable aseismic sliding in the lower portion. In the latter case, stress concentration due to the deep aseismic slip is the relevant feature of the pre-seismic stress acting on the upper section of the lithosphere. The two cases are examined by use of dislocation theory and their observable effects compared. Different depths of the aseismic slip zone and the presence or absence of a uniform friction on the seismic fault are allowed for. If the model is applied to the San Andreas fault region, where a steady sliding condition actually seems to be present at shallow depth, it turns out that the slip amplitudes commonly associated with large earthquakes are consistent with average basal stress values which can be substantially lower than a few bars, a value often quoted as the steady state basal stress due to a velocity gradient in the upper asthenosphere.     

Run-up from impact tsunami

We report on calculations of the on-shore run-up of waves that might be generated by the impact of subkilometre asteroids into the deep ocean. The calculations were done with the COULWAVE code, which models the propagation and shore-interaction of non-linear moderate- to long-wavelength waves  ( kh < π)  using the extended Boussinesq approximation. We carried out run-up calculations for several different situations: (1) laboratory-scale monochromatic wave trains onto simple slopes; (2) 10–100 m monochromatic wave trains onto simple slopes; (3) 10–100 m monochromatic wave trains onto a compound slope representing a typical bathymetric profile of the Pacific coast of North America; (4) time-variable scaled trains generated by the collapse of an impact cavity in deep water onto simple slopes and (5) full-amplitude trains onto the Pacific coast profile. For the last case, we also investigated the effects of bottom friction on the run-up. For all cases, we compare our results with the so-called 'Irribaren scaling': The relative run-up   R / H ₀=ξ= s ( H ₀/ L ₀)^−1/2  , where the run-up is   R , H ₀  is the deep-water waveheight, L ₀ is the deep-water wavelength, s is the slope and ξ is a dimensionless quantity known as the Irribaren number. Our results suggest that Irribaren scaling breaks down for shallow slopes   s ≤ 0.01  when  ξ < 0.1 − 0.2  , below which   R / H ₀  is approximately constant. This regime corresponds to steep waves and very shallow slopes, which are the most relevant for impact tsunami, but also the most difficult to access experimentally.     

Digital photogrammetry and kinematic GPS applied to the monitoring of Vulcano Island, Aeolian Arc, Italy

Digital photogrammetry and kinematic global positioning system (GPS) techniques are investigated and compared over a volcanic area as operational approaches to map the topography and monitor surface displacements. The use of terrestrial and airborne GPS to support the photogrammetric survey allowed for operational and processing time reduction without loss of accuracy. A digital elevation model (DEM) is obtained from the processing of the high-resolution digital imagery survey, which provides detailed information over a large area. The internal accuracy of the derived DEM has been verified by the comparison of two sets of data obtained from imagery acquired in different epochs; the observed root-mean-square error of residuals ranges from a few centimetres to 15 cm depending on the morphological features. Kinematic and pseudo-kinematic GPS surveys are performed to derive accurate 3-D coordinates at monumented benchmarks and accurate elevation profiles along footpaths. The average repeatability of the GPS measurements on benchmarks is 1 cm for measurement durations of 2–3 min. The standard deviation of interpolated vertical coordinates obtained at the crossings of kinematic GPS profiles is 4.3 cm. The high quality of these GPS coordinates justifies their use also for the validation of the photogrammetric DEM. A comparison of 6000 common points provides a standard deviation of residuals of 18 cm. The results show that the deformation pattern of a volcanic area can be rapidly and accurately monitored even in the absence of geodetic benchmarks. The integration of aerial photogrammetry with GPS kinematic surveys may be considered as an optimal approach for deriving high-resolution mapping products to be used in support of studies of volcanic dynamics.     

Simulations of strong ground motion in SW Iberia for the 1969 February 28 (Ms= 8.0) and the 1755 November 1 (M∼ 8.5) earthquakes – II. Strong ground motion simulations

This is the second paper of a series of two concerning strong ground motion in SW Iberia due to earthquakes originating from the adjacent Atlantic area. The aim of this paper is to use the velocity model that was proposed and validated in the companion paper for seismic intensity modelling of the 1969 ( M _s= 8.0) and 1755 ( M = 8.5–8.7) earthquakes.
First, we propose a regression to convert simulated values of Peak Ground Velocity (PGV) into Modified Mercalli Intensity (MMI) in SW Iberia, and using this regression, we build synthetic isoseismal maps for a large ( M _s= 8.0) earthquake that occurred in 1969. Based on information on the seismic source provided by various authors, we show that the velocity model effectively reproduces macroseismic observations in the whole region. We also confirm that seismic intensity distribution is very sensitive to a small number of source parameters: rupture directivity, fault strike and fault dimensions. Then, we extrapolate the method to the case of the great ( M = 8.5–8.7) 1755 earthquake, for a series of hypotheses recently proposed by three authors about the location of the epicentral region. The model involving a subduction-related rupture in the Gulf of Cádiz results in excessive ground motion in northern Morocco, suggesting that the source of the 1755 earthquake should be located further west. A rupture along the western coast of Portugal, compatible with an activation of the passive western Iberian margin, would imply a relatively low average slip, which, alone, would could not account for the large tsunami observed in the whole northern Atlantic ocean. A seismic source located below the Gorringe Bank seems the most likely since it is more efficient in reproducing the distribution of high intensities in SW Iberia due to the 1755 earthquake.     

A seismic reflection and GLORIA study of compressional deformation in the Gorringe Bank region, eastern North Atlantic

Seismic reflection and GLORIA side-scan sonar data obtained on RRS Charles Darwin cruise CD64 reveal new information on the styles of deformation in the Gorringe Bank region, at the eastern end of the Azores–Gibraltar plate boundary. Previous studies suggest that Gorringe Bank was formed by the overthrusting of a portion of the African plate upon the Eurasian plate. The new seismic data show, however, that the most intensely deformed region is located south of Gorringe Bank, on the northern flanks of a NW–SE-trending submarine ridge which includes the Ampere and Coral Patch seamounts. The deformation is expressed as long-wavelength (up to 60  km), large-amplitude (up to 800  m) folds in the sediments and underlying acoustic basement, which in places are associated with one or more reverse faults, and as a fabric of short-wavelength folds (up to 3  km) with a NE trend. In contrast, the same sedimentary units when traced beneath the flanking plains are undeformed, except for some faults with a small throw (~30  m), some of which offset the seafloor. GLORIA data show that recent deformation is broadly distributed over the region. Structural trends rotate from 45° in the west to 70° in the east of the region, nearly perpendicular to the NW-verging plate motion vectors as determined from plate kinematic models. Flexure modelling suggests that a portion of Gorringe Bank has loaded 152  Ma oceanic lithosphere and that a maximum of 50  km of shortening has occurred at Gorringe Bank since the mid-Miocene. Our observations support a model in which there is no single plate boundary in the region, rather that the deformation is distributed over a 200–330  km wide zone.     

Recurrence-time and frequency-slip statistics of slip events on the creeping section of the San Andreas fault in central California

An important question in seismic hazard assessments is the frequency-size and recurrence interval statistics at a point on a fault. Does a point on a fault obey the same statistics as earthquakes in a region do? This is a difficult question to answer because the number of repetitive earthquakes on a particular fault that have been observed is small. In order to overcome this difficulty we consider slip events on the creeping section of the San Andreas fault in central California. Sequences of up to 100 events are obtained from creepmeter records. We compare the statistical distribution of recurrence times with the Brownian passage-time, lognormal, and Weibull distributions and using goodness-of-fit tests find that the Weibull is the preferred distribution. We also consider the frequency–amplitude distribution of slip events. We find that the data clearly do not obey a Gutenberg–Richter distribution. Instead there is a uniform distribution of event sizes for a large fraction of events.     

Comparison of frequency of occurrence of earthquakes with slip rates from long-term seismicity data: the cases of Gulf of Corinth, Sea of Marmara and Dead Sea Fault Zone

In this article, through the comparison of knowledge relating to historical earthquakes with the understanding of present-day earthquake mechanics and overall GPS slip rates in the eastern Mediterranean region, it has been possible to obtain an idea of how frequently large earthquakes may be expected in some parts of the region. It has also been possible to make an assessment from these early events of slip rates over a long period of time for the Gulf of Corinth in Greece, the Marmara Sea in Turkey and the Dead Sea Fault System, as well as deriving long-term magnitude–frequency relations for these same regions.
It has been demonstrated that slip rates calculated from historical data are in general comparable to those calculated from GPS measurements and field observations, while the size of historical earthquakes and their uncertainty can be quantified. This permits a more reliable estimation of the long-term hazard, the calculation of which is the concern of the engineering seismologist. It has also been shown that in most cases large earthquakes are less frequent when they are estimated from long-term data sets rather than from the instrumental period making the notion of recurrence time and of hazard assessment, questionable.
This study focuses on some of the few areas in the world for which long-term macroseism information exists and which facilitate this kind of analysis.     

Environmental and socioeconomic dynamics of the Indian Ocean tsunami in Penang,Malaysia

This paper addresses some of the environmental and socioeconomic dimensions of the 2004 Indian Ocean tsunami on Penang, Malaysia. We aim to offer wide access to unique and perishable data, while at the same time providing insight to ongoing debates about hazards, vulnerability and social capital. Our social survey examines some of the dynamics that shaped the tsunami impact, response and recovery process. While in terms of lives lost Penang may not conform to arguments surrounding vulnerable environments, the recovery process is more marked by social disparities in terms of the ability to access resources. Our physical survey records local topography, flow depth and flow direction, and charts the differential impact of the tsunami. Yet measuring hazards is not a straightforward process, and relies on reflexive methodologies and eyewitness accounts.     

Slip rate on the Dead Sea transform fault in northern Araba valley (Jordan)

The Araba valley lies between the southern tip of the Dead Sea and the Gulf of Aqaba. This depression, blanketed with alluvial and lacustrine deposits, is cut along its entire length by the Dead Sea fault. In many places the fault is well defined by scarps, and evidence for left-lateral strike-slip faulting is abundant. The slip rate on the fault can be constrained from dated geomorphic features displaced by the fault. A large fan at the mouth of Wadi Dahal has been displaced by about 500 m since the bulk of the fanglomerates were deposited 77–140 kyr ago, as dated from cosmogenic isotope analysis (¹⁰Be in chert) of pebbles collected on the fan surface and from the age of transgressive lacustrine sediments capping the fan. Holocene alluvial surfaces are also clearly offset. By correlation with similar surfaces along the Dead Sea lake margin, we propose a chronology for their emplacement. Taken together, our observations suggest an average slip rate over the Late Pleistocene of between 2 and 6 mm yr⁻¹, with a preferred value of 4 mm yr⁻¹. This slip rate is shown to be consistent with other constraints on the kinematics of the Arabian plate, assuming a rotation rate of about 0.396° Myr⁻¹ around a pole at 31.1°N, 26.7°E relative to Africa.     

Orthogonal to oblique rifting: effect of rift basin orientation in the evolution of the North basin, Malawi Rift, East Africa

The East African Rift system has long been considered the best modern example of the initial stages of continental rifting. The Malawi Rift is characteristic of the western branch of the East African Rift system, composed of half-grabens of opposing asymmetry along its length. There are striking similarities between basins within the Malawi Rift, and others along the western branch. Each exhibits similar bathymetry, border-fault length, rift zone width and fault segment length. The North Basin of the Malawi Rift differs from others in the rift only in its orientation: trending NW–SE as opposed to N–S. Although there is general agreement as to the geometry of the Malawi Rift; debate as to the amount of strike–slip vs. dip–slip deformation and the influence of underlying Pan-African foliation remains. This study presents new data from a closely spaced shallow [2 s two-way travel time (TWT)] seismic reflection data set integrated with basin-scale deeper (6 s TWT) seismic reflection data that document the structural evolution of the border and intra-basin faults. These data reveal that the different trend of the North Basin, most likely to have been influenced by the underlying Pan-African foliation, has played an extremely important role in the structural style of basin evolution. The border-fault and intra-basin structures nucleated during extension that was initially orthogonal (ENE). During this time (>8.6 to ∼0.5–0.4 Ma) intra-basin faults synthetic to the west-dipping border-fault nucleated, whereas strain was localised on the segmented border-fault early on. A later rotation of extension orientation (to NW) led to these established faults orienting oblique to rifting. This generated an overall dextral strike–slip setting that led to the development of transfer faults adjacent to the border-fault, and the generation of flower structures and folds over the greater displacement intra-basin faults.     

基于手机基站数据的城市交通流量模拟

基于移动定位数据的城市内社会经济活动特征分析是人类移动性的重要研究内容,而交通流量更是这些特征的基本反映。为还原城市道路网络的使用情况并分析其分布特征,本文从产生交通流量的个体出发,对包含基站位置的手机话单数据进行系统抽样,利用蒙特卡洛方法产生个体的出行起止点,并结合当地道路交通网络求得最短路径,最后估算出一天内道路交通网络上的流量分布。通过分析发现：城市内大部分道路的流量小,使用率低,大部分交通流量集中在小部分主干道路;进一步统计分析可知,当地道路交通流量符合20/80规律,即大约20%的道路承担着80%的交通流量;而对不同类型的道路,流量分布也反映出其在城市道路网络中的地位和作用。此研究对于历史交通流量分布的重现、城市道路交通模式的研究以及基于此的道路网络规划情景模拟都有着重要意义。