The cooperative framework for ocean and coastal management in the Pacific Islands: Effectiveness,constraints and future direction

The framework for management of the ocean and coasts of the Pacific Islands region has been evolving since the early 1970s when Pacific Island countries played a significant role in the negotiations leading to the 1982 United Nations Convention on the Law of the Sea. Commencing with a summary of the provisions of relevant international instruments, this paper presents a broad overview of regional arrangements for ocean and coastal management in the Pacific Islands region. It considers the work of the various regional intergovernmental organizations with active programmes in ocean research and governance and the consultative arrangements that support coordination and collaboration. Consultative arrangements involving other stakeholders, such as local, regional and international nongovernmental organizations are summarised. To improve environmental governance and address increasing environmental threats, particularly in relation to coastal area management, consultative arrangements need strengthening. This applies equally to national and regional level consultation. The institutional and policy framework for the management and conservation of oceanic fish stocks that Pacific Island countries have been refining over a period of 25 years is suggested as providing useful lessons for strengthening coastal management processes and strategies in the region.     

Sunken WWII shipwrecks of the Pacific and East Asia: The need for regional collaboration to address the potential marine pollution threat

Oil, chemicals and unexploded ordinances onboard sunken World War II (WWII) warships and merchant vessels pose a real and significant marine pollution risk to the nations of the Pacific and East Asia. A recent project of the South Pacific Regional Environment Program (SPREP), through its Pacific Ocean Pollution Prevention Program, has highlighted the extent of the risk posed by vessels lost in WWII to Member Governments. Some of these vessels have already begun to leak fuel oil and cargo into the fragile environment of the Pacific atolls. The oil spills from the oil tanker USS Mississinewa sunk in Ulithi Lagoon, Federated States of Micronesia, will be used as an example of the problems associated with WWII wrecks in the region.A Regional WWII Wreck Strategy was formulated and endorsed by the Members of SPREP, and a preliminary risk assessment of WWII shipwrecks was carried out by the program, as part of this exercise. This led to the development of a Geographic Information System (GIS) database, which details the types of ships, the tonnage and location of over 3800 vessels lost in the Pacific and East Asia. Although not complete, the Pacific WWII Shipwreck Database totals over 13 million tons of sunken vessels—ranging from aircraft carriers to battleships and including over 330 tankers and oilers.As a major proportion of vessels lost during WWII rest in the East Asian–Pacific sea area, close collaboration needs to be established between the regional environmental bodies and their affected Member Governments to address the scale of marine pollution risk. Complex maritime jurisdictional issues, along with overlapping claims on Economic Exclusion Zones and the interrelationships of the marine environments in the region, also underscore the need to address the issue on a multilateral basis.This paper aims to highlight the extent of the risks posed by sunken WWII vessels to fisheries, marine and coastal resources of the Pacific and East Asian regions, as well as the issues of ownership and responsibility for the WWII shipwrecks of the Pacific.     

UNEP’s Regional Seas Programme: approach,experience and future plans

The 1972 United Nations Conference on the Human Environment (Stockholm, UN Conference, 1972) outlined a ‘masterplan’ linking environmental assessment, environmental management and supporting measures as basic and inseparable elements of environmental actions plans. It also indicated the advantages of a regional approach in contributing to the solution of global problems. The Regional Seas Programme of UNEP (United Nations Environment Programme) was subsequently initiated in 1974 (UN General Assembly, 1972). Development of UNEP’s Regional Seas Programme demonstrated that the basic concepts formulated at Stockholm can effectively foster regional cooperation among interested States, and may benefit from the support of the United Nations system as a whole.The present Regional Seas Programme includes fourteen regions, comprising over 140 coastal States. It was conceived as an action-oriented programme encompassing a comprehensive, trans-sectoral approach to marine and coastal areas and to environmental problems, considering not only the consequences, but also the causes of environmental degradation. Each Regional Seas Programme is based on the needs of the region concerned. The Regional Seas Programmes promote the parallel development of regional legal agreements, and of action-oriented programme activities, as embodied in the action plans. The overall strategy to be followed, as defined by UNEP’s Governing Council (UNEP, 1974) is:

• 1. Promotion of international and regional conventions, guidelines and actions for the control of marine pollution and the protection and management of aquatic resources.
• 2. Assessment of the state of marine pollution, pollution sources and trends, and of the impact of pollution on human health, marine ecosystems and amenities.
• 3. Coordination of efforts with regard to environmental aspects of the protection, development and management of marine and coastal resources.
• 4. Support for education and training efforts to facilitate the full participation of developing countries in the protection, development and management of marine and coastal resources.

Because the goal of each Regional Seas Programme is to benefit the States of that region, governments are involved from the very beginning in the formulation of the action plan. After acceptance, the implementation of the programme is carried out, under the overall authority of the governments concerned, by national institutions nominated by their governments. Although the Regional Seas Programme is implemented primarily by government-nominated institutions, specialized United Nations bodies, as well as the relevant international and regional organizations, contribute to its formulation, and also provide assistance to these national institutions. UNEP acts as an overall coordinator for the development and implementation of regional action plans. In some cases, this role is limited to the initial phase of the activities.     

Strengthening regional governance to protect the marine environment in Northeast Asia: From a fragmented to an integrated approach

Northeast Asia is failing in its attempts to protect its regional seas from irreversible ecological damage and contamination. At the policy level, the regional architecture for marine protection has several glaring structural problems that need to be identified and resolved in an expeditious and politically sensitive manner. Although the UNDP/GEF Yellow Sea Large Marine Ecosystem Project (YS LME) and the Northwest Pacific Action Plan (NOWPAP) are the two most likely institutions from which to build the next phase of regional marine cooperation, synergies between the two institutions remain limited. Both institutions are endowed with unique opportunities, challenges and limitations that must be taken into full consideration when planning the next step of coordinated action for regional marine protection. For the purpose of developing a more effective phase of marine cooperation in Northeast Asia, this paper advocates the formation of a Marine Environmental Community based on an integrated approach towards Northeast Asia's regional marine programs. This will facilitate improvements in funding, policy coordination through high level policy dialogue, transparency and efficiency of information sharing systems and full participation of all the coastal states in the region.     

Ocean governance in the South Pacific region: Progress and plans for action

The Pacific Island Regional Ocean Policy (PIROP), which was released in 2002, provided the framework for ocean governance in the Pacific region. Since then there have been a myriad of policy documents and institutional arrangements that have been developed to address ocean governance issues, however, little progress has occurred with regard to the actual implementation of PIROP. This paper examines the region's progress in establishing integrated oceans management, and how this fits with the use of marine spatial planning and area based management tools, such as marine protected areas. It argues that policy making in this region encounters the usual difficulties with integrated policy approaches experienced elsewhere but that these difficulties are further accentuated when applied to developing nations that are highly dependent on external support. It suggests a way forward for the future with development of action plans, implementation and the practical application of those plans including a regional contextualisation/analysis of progress against regional objectives.     

The regional approach to management of marine pollution in the South Pacific

Marine pollution does not recognise maritime boundaries. Consequently, protection of the marine environment from pollution must involve an international cooperative effort, with near neighbours, in particular, working together to protect coastal and ocean areas close to their political boundaries. This paper describes a regional approach adopted from 1988 to 1994 in the South Pacific Region to address marine pollution problems. Some 25 countries and territories lie within the region. Apart from Australia, New Zealand and Papua New Guinea, the countries of the region consist basically of a large number of small islands separated by substantial stretches of ocean. Growing populations and demands for better living standards are exerting increasing pressures on coastal and marine resources, leading in some cases to significant marine pollution. The Region has limited financial and technical resources to address such problems and countries have therefore determined to assess and control them through a concerted regional approach. This paper reviews aspects of this effort, outlining the methods adopted, describing the outcomes and discussing the problems and lessons learned.     

Capacity building in the marine sector in the Pacific Islands: the role of the University of the South Pacific's Marine Studies Programme

Capacity building in the marine sector is a priority for Pacific Island nations, which face major challenges in the sustainable management of their marine resources under UNCLOS III and the various Conventions and Agreements stemming from UNCED. The University of the South Pacific (USP), with its 12 Pacific Island members (Cook Islands, Fiji, Kiribati, Marshall Islands, Nauru, Niue, Samoa, Solomon Islands, Tokelau, Tonga, Tuvalu, Vanuatu) has taken up this challenge through the establishment of its Marine Studies Programme (MSP) in 1993. The MSP is one of the four focal areas identified in USP's 1998 Strategic Plan. The breadth of MSP's activities is substantial, ranging from awareness raising at the village level to sophisticated post-graduate research in marine science. The substantial regional and international cooperation, research and training involved in these endeavours require USP to respond to education, training and research needs at many levels. As USP services more than 23 million square kilometres of ocean space and less than 1.7 million people, only a small percentage of this population have access to face-to-face teaching. USP's success to date is a measure of staff dedication, innovation and the confidence of the university, its members, and its donor partners. Capacity building in the marine sector will remain a high priority for many years to come, and MSP must continue to play a leading role.     

Lessons learned from Eastern Africa: the development of policy on ICZM at national and regional levels

Coastal zones of Eastern Africa are endowed with a diversity of life forms and resources which support large populations of coastal communities. The economies of the countries in the region are dependent on these resources in the form of fisheries and coastal forest products, tourism, shipways and coastal facilities such as ports, industries and urban centers.Population growth, especially in coastal urban centers is increasing the demand for coastal and marine resources. In addition, poverty, lack of awareness and inadequate management have resulted in over exploitation of coastal and marine resources, habitat destruction including shoreline erosion as well as marine pollution. The rate of resource depletion and environmental degradation is on the increase. There is an urgent need for instituting management measure that will reverse the current trend.The governments in the region have accepted and are committed to the implementation of Integrated coastal management (ICZM) as an effective mechanism for addressing and resolving the multiplicity of issues experienced in coastal areas through sectoral coordination and collaborative approaches. However, the process has just begun and there are a number of ICZM initiatives in progress at local, national and regional levels. This paper presents the issues of the coastal zone and reviews some of the progress made to date in the implementation of ICZM.     

Impacts of tuna industries on coastal communities in Pacific Island countries

Tuna fishing and processing industries have brought both a range of economic development and cultural contact opportunities to coastal communities in Pacific Island countries, and a variety of social and environmental challenges. This article outlines the main trends in the tuna industries of the region, examines the aspirations of coastal communities towards these industries, and traces actual experiences of their operations.     

Ecosystem-based management institutional design: Balance between federal,state, and local governments within the Gulf of Mexico Alliance

We present a case study of the organizational framework of the Gulf of Mexico Alliance (GOMA), which was implemented to promote the use of ecosystem-based management (EBM) at a regional level. GOMA is a state-led initiative formed to protect and restore coastal and marine resources of the Gulf of Mexico. Representatives of the US Gulf States, together with their federal partners, clearly defined ecological, social, and economic short- and long-term objectives to be reached through regional collaborations. The aim of this paper is to show how GOMA, and particularly the Ecosystem Integration and Assessment Priority Issue Team, in its attempt to apply ecosystem approaches to manage marine resources, modified the common organizational scheme by implementing partnerships at various governmental (federal, state, local) and nongovernmental levels. We address the following major points considered to be of importance for EBM implementation: (1) multilevel cooperation, (2) stakeholders’ involvement, (3) sharing of information, (4) bridging science and policy, and (5) consensus-based decision making.     

中法南太平洋地区海洋治理合作：内在逻辑与现实选择

为推动中法在南太平洋地区的海洋治理合作,进一步构建海洋命运共同体,文章考察中法在南太平洋地区海洋治理的动因,并尝试提出双方合作的现实选择。研究结果表明：中法应联合设立应对南太平洋地区气候变化的资金平台,规范融资机制;推动建立海洋生物多样性保护机制;联合开展海草床和珊瑚礁等典型海洋生态系统的监视监测、健康评价和保护修复;加强蓝碳治理合作;以南太平洋区域环境署为平台,推动中法在南太平洋海洋环境保护方面的合作。     

东亚海区的海岸带综合管理经验:从地方性示范到区域性合作

本文阐述了东亚海区海岸带综合管理实践如何从地方性的示范发展到区域性的合作管理框架，如何实现海洋和海岸带资源的可持续利用．文中着重突出了厦门市政府在维持环境保护和经济发展的平衡，启动和实施海岸带综合管理，以及与沿海国在国际合作方面的经验，总结了厦门实施海岸带综合管理的主要经验，包括多部门间综合协调机制、海岸带综合管理法律框架、科技支撑体系的建立，海洋功能区划、环境剖面和战略环境管理计划的制定，以及实现海上联合执法等等．同时阐述了东亚海域环境管理区域合作计划（PEMSEA）与澳大利亚合作伙伴之间的关系在推动沿海城市的国际合作中将起到的作用．     

Socio-economic drivers and indicators for artisanal coastal fisheries in Pacific island countries and territories and their use for fisheries management strategies

This is the first regional study of artisanal fisheries in Pacific Island countries and territories that demonstrated that the future of the region's artisanal fishery sector and the livelihood of coastal communities will be highly dependent on alternative subsistence and income sources, which are necessary to reduce fishing pressure to a sustainable level to maintain ecosystem services and food security. The overall objective of this study was to identify socio-economic indicators and drivers to improve the understanding of the dynamics between socio-economic conditions and current exploitation levels of finfish and invertebrates of coastal communities in 17 Pacific Island countries and territories. We showed that exploitation rates and thus possible overexploitation are not solely the consequence of a simple demographic growth process but are in fact a result of the choices people have. Our results confirmed a close relationship between resource exploitation rates and economic development at the national level and the availability of alternative income opportunities at the community level. Multivariate analysis results suggest that communities in countries with somewhat unfavourable conditions and limited access to alternatives and fishing households in communities with overall favourable economic conditions are at highest vulnerability as they have the highest dependence on coastal fisheries resources. Alternative economic opportunities at the national scale and availability of alternative income at the community level vary significantly between cultural groups. Based on our results, the development of management strategies with realistic expectations of ensuring livelihood of coastal communities and sustainable resource use in Pacific Island countries and territories requires a hierarchical and integral approach. Major drivers identified at the regional, cultural and local levels should be used to identify priorities, to assess overall advantages and limitations at the different levels as well as the vulnerability of communities targeted, and to develop strategies accordingly.     

The performance of the Black Sea Commission as a collaborative governance regime

It is often claimed that the Black Sea is one of the most degraded seas in the world. Management to rehabilitate the Black Sea requires cooperation between the coastal countries to be successful. However, regional cooperation in the Black Sea is poorly coordinated and lack concrete outcomes. This article analyses the performance of the Black Sea Commission in terms of enabling and fostering effective regional collaboration between the Black Sea coastal countries. The results indicate that the measures undertaken by the Black Sea Commission are effective in terms of enabling scientific and project based cooperation between the Black Sea countries. The cooperation around regional and national institutional reforms to tackle the Black Sea environmental problems is found to be weak. Despite the existing mechanisms and willingness of countries to cooperate, the implementation of the established strategic action plan for the environmental protection and rehabilitation of the Black Sea is limited. Most of the limitations of the Black Sea Commission's regime are found in its institutional and legal frameworks, which constrain the effectiveness of collaborative efforts of the Black Sea countries. To be fully functional, the collaborative governance regime of the Black Sea Commission has to be improved. Recommendations as to how these may be addressed to enhance the regime's capacity to ensure effective marine collaborative governance in the region are presented in this article.     

Contrast in life histories of exploited fishes and ecosystem structures in coastal waters off west Canada and east Korea

By reviewing the history of fishery exploitation in the coastal waters of west Canada and east Korea, related with contrasting life history strategies of the dominant species, the fishery management challenges that each country would face in the upcoming decades were outlined. In the ecosystem of the Canadian western coastal waters, the dominant oceanographic feature is the coastal upwelling domain off the west coast of Vancouver Island, the northernmost extent of the California Current System in the eastern North Pacific. In the marine ecosystem of the eastern coasts of Korea (the Japan/East Sea), a major oceanographic feature is the Tsushima Warm Current, a branch of the Kuroshio Current in the western North Pacific. Fishes in the Canadian ecosystem are dominated by demersal, long-lived species such as flatfish, rockfish, sablefish, and halibut. During summer, migratory pelagic species such as Pacific hake, Pacific salmon, and recently Pacific sardine, move into this area to feed. In the late 1970s, Canada declared jurisdiction for 200 miles from their coastline, and major fisheries species in Canadian waters have been managed with a quota system. The overall fishing intensity off the west coast of Vancouver Island has been relatively moderate compared to Korean waters. Fishes in the ecosystem of the eastern Korean waters are dominated by short-lived pelagic and demersal fish. Historically, Korea has shared marine resources in this area with neighbouring countries, but stock assessments and quotas have only recently (since the late-1990s) been implemented for some major species. In the Korean ecosystem, fisheries can be described as intensive, and many stocks have been rated as overfished. The two ecosystems responded differently to climate impacts such as regime shifts under different exploitation histories. In the future, both countries will face the challenge of global warming and subsequent impacts on ecosystems, necessitating developing adaptive fisheries management plans. The challenges will be contrasting for the two countries: Canada will need to conserve fish populations, while Korea will need to focus on rebuilding depleted fish populations.     

印度洋-西太平洋海洋动物谱系地理演化格局

印度洋和西太平洋海域,拥有大量浅海大陆架、边缘海和岛屿,孕育了全球最丰富的初级生产力和渔业资源,尤其是作为该区域陆源物质输入、两大洋能量汇聚中心和生物多样性中心的东印度三角,在全球海洋生物分布和进化中扮演了重要角色.本文结合物理海洋和化学海洋环境,通过线粒体基因和核基因等分子标记研究结果,归纳分析了印度洋和西太平洋区域...     

Collaborative fisheries management in the Northeast US: Emerging initiatives and future directions

The nature of participation by fishing organizations in fisheries management in the Northeast US is changing. Evidence of this is the number of groups that are actively seeking opportunities for group governance of marine resources. This article explores emerging collaborative or co-management arrangements in this region (a process whereby decision-making is shared between federal/council level and fishery stakeholder groups) and the shift towards an ecosystem-based approach to the management of marine fisheries.This research suggests that it is an opportune time for the development of a regional policy in the Northeast that provides an enabling environment in support of decentralized governance of federally managed marine fisheries. It also suggests that these initiatives can play a key role in operationalizing ecosystem-based management.     

Marine science and technology transfer: Can the Intergovernmental Oceanographic Commission advance governance of biodiversity beyond national jurisdiction?

Marine scientific research is crucial to forge solutions in the development of a new international legally binding instrument for the conservation and sustainable use of marine biological diversity in areas beyond national jurisdiction (ABNJ) under the 1982 United Nations Convention on the Law of the Sea . The transfer of marine technology, capacity development and marine genetic resources are key issues. This paper examines how the Intergovernmental Oceanographic Commission (IOC), as a competent international organisation for marine scientific research and technology transfer, can inform the development of the instrument. Synergies between marine technology transfer and non-monetary benefit sharing of genetic resources are illustrated. Four key lessons from the IOC are examined: 1. Coordinating international cooperation in marine scientific research; 2. Enabling open access to data and knowledge; 3. Facilitating capacity development through scientific training and education; and 4. Governance of marine scientific research. Realising the potential of the IOC to advance governance solutions for ABNJ will depend on increased political will from Member States and strengthened partnerships to reduce resource constraints and enhance the IOC's capacity at global and regional scales.     

Marine capacity building in North and West Africa

The North and West African coastal and marine areas discussed in this paper consist of the countries from Morocco to Libya for North Africa, and from Morocco to South Africa (up to the Cape of Good Hope) in West Africa. These marine areas consist of a wide to narrow continental shelf, estuaries, lagoons, coastal plains, isolated mountains, mangroves and wetlands. These areas are centres of productive socio-economic activities with a high population density, vast fisheries, and mineral resources. Presently, these resources are exploited with little attention for the environmental consequences. Sustainable management of the marine environment and its resources requires effective management plans and a human capacity to formulate, implement and monitor these plans. However, most of the countries still lack funds, human and infrastructural capacity for the management of their marine territories and its resources. Though there are many universities, research institutes and private organisations with a modest infrastructure for both data and information handling and the management of the marine environment, the region still lags behind in human and infrastructural capacity. Existing capacity development programmes by United Nations agencies, governments, universities, nongovernmental agencies, have so far not been very effective. A vigorous marine capacity building effort is needed to ensure the sustainable management of the marine environment in this African region. Externally funded programmes with a focus ensuring technology cooperation are needed. Such programmes must be based on mutual co-operation and participation of scientists and administrators from the region at all levels of programme formulation, implementation and assessment.     

Local community training and education in southern Tanzania—a case study

Local coastal communities are highly dependent upon the marine environment not only for protein but also as a primary source of income. In addition, there are growing economic opportunities offered within the coastal zone. As populations increase in these areas there is an increasing demand on coastal resources. This in turn requires effective management initiatives at regional, national and local levels.The Marine Education and Training Programme in Mtwara, southern Tanzania was a small scale capacity building project that incorporated two elements; a primary schools field day education programme and a marine coastal resources course for fishermen and women from the Mtwara District. The programme ran for a period of 1 year and during that time 14 schools, 198 children, 34 fishermen, 2 women and 14 villages participated. Results from preliminary evaluation indicated that such education is not only welcome by the local government offices, teachers, village chairmen and fishermen as an expansion of the knowledge base, but is also an important and valuable stepping stone for the local communities to become active in issues regarding the management of coastal resources.