The evolving organisational framework for Integrated Coastal Management in England and Wales

Integrated Coastal Management (ICM) enjoys growing support within the UK. It is therefore timely to assess the factors which have influenced the evolution of the current administrative system and to investigate the extent to which the current organisational arrangements provide a suitable framework within which ICM can develop. Coastal management is indebted to related developments in conservation and environmental management. As a corrective to fragmented and largely sectoral institutional arrangements, limited integrative mechanisms have recently been introduced. Further opportunities arising from the establishment of regional government and with European initiatives should consolidate the establishment of a more integrated coastal management regime.     

Governing global fish provisioning: Ownership and management of marine resources

Contemporary fish provisioning, in the era of globalization, is linking distant locations through the catchments and consumption of fish, and as more and more fish stocks are coming under threat there are unprecedented challenges emerging for environmental governance. The conventional nation-state-based regulatory arrangements of the past are becoming inadequate and in response alternative arrangements emerge. This article will compare two of these innovative fish governance arrangements addressing problems of sustainability, notably the Marine Stewardship Council and the WTO. This comparison provides support for the claim that environmental governance of global fish provision puts the traditional notions of ownership and sovereignty under pressure, while simple alternative governance arrangements are not (yet) available.     

促进海洋经济绿色增长——2011年APEC蓝色经济论坛概述

为落实2010年APEC领导人宣言有关绿色增长及环境可持续发展方面的内容,APEC海洋可持续发展中心(AMSD)于2011年11月在中国厦门举办APEC蓝色经济论坛.通过APEC经济体代表们的广泛研讨,在蓝色经济研究方面提出了应重点关注的6个领域,包括陆海统筹、区域海洋经济统计标准、海洋生态系统服务价值、海洋经济政策调整、海洋经济数据政策及生态补偿等方面.基于此次论坛的研讨成果,作者建议中国蓝色经济未来的发展战略应是在深化理解蓝色经济理念的基础上,贯彻陆海统筹战略,建立区域海洋经济统计标准,形成政府政策导向,肯定海洋自然资本的价值,加强相关能力建设与深化国际合作.     

Governance fit for climate change in a Caribbean coastal-marine context

Coastal-marine systems in small island developing states of the Caribbean are highly vulnerable to both current and future climate change. Societies navigate these changes in part through processes of governance and the institutions through which governance takes place. The concept of institutional adaptive capacity is used to explore how governance processes and institutional arrangements can be adapted to match the scale and extent of climate change in a case study of the Soufriere Marine Management Area, St. Lucia. Institutional adaptive capacity is analyzed based on the following factors: institutional variety, analytical deliberation and nesting and networks. The analysis is based on 36 semi-structured interviews conducted with key informants from NGOs, cooperatives, management authorities and government agencies. The findings suggest that governance to address climate change in the case study is contingent upon developing holistic, integrated management systems, improving flexibility in existing collaborative decision making processes, augmenting the capacity of local management authorities with support from higher-level government, exploring opportunities for private–social partnerships, and developing adequate social–environmental monitoring programs. These findings have potential implications and lessons for similar settings throughout the Caribbean.     

The cooperative framework for ocean and coastal management in the Pacific Islands: Effectiveness,constraints and future direction

The framework for management of the ocean and coasts of the Pacific Islands region has been evolving since the early 1970s when Pacific Island countries played a significant role in the negotiations leading to the 1982 United Nations Convention on the Law of the Sea. Commencing with a summary of the provisions of relevant international instruments, this paper presents a broad overview of regional arrangements for ocean and coastal management in the Pacific Islands region. It considers the work of the various regional intergovernmental organizations with active programmes in ocean research and governance and the consultative arrangements that support coordination and collaboration. Consultative arrangements involving other stakeholders, such as local, regional and international nongovernmental organizations are summarised. To improve environmental governance and address increasing environmental threats, particularly in relation to coastal area management, consultative arrangements need strengthening. This applies equally to national and regional level consultation. The institutional and policy framework for the management and conservation of oceanic fish stocks that Pacific Island countries have been refining over a period of 25 years is suggested as providing useful lessons for strengthening coastal management processes and strategies in the region.     

Delimitation arrangements in Arctic seas: Cases of precedence or securing of strategic/economic interests?

This article examines the extent to which arrangements between adjacent states in the European part of the Arctic will create precedents for the stipulation of the boundary in the Barents Sea. The delimitation arrangements discussed are the grey zone between Norway and the USSR in the Barents Sea, and the Norwegian-Icelandic joint area between Jan Mayen and Iceland in the North Atlantic.     

Remote sensing of coastal interactions in the Mediterranean region

The coastal regions of the Mediterranean are the site of countless economic and recreational activities, but are threatened by dramatic dangers of misuse and pollution. Adequate tools are needed to study the environmental pressure imposed on these regions by the conflicting needs of protecting their ecological balance and exploiting their natural resources. Coastal ecosystems are very sensitive to the environmental impact of land use in watersheds, along the coast and further inland, of fluvial discharges, and of marine processes. Weathering, erosion, or waste disposal on land, as well as other activities at sea, such as shipping, dumping or oil extraction, are but a few of the factors which would require that the coastal areas be suitably monitored. Modern techniques of environmental assessment call for the use of integrated observation systems. The collection of data with traditional coastal installations remains an important component of such research. However, the large space scales and short time scales of many near-coastal and/or marine processes require the use of (orbital) remote sensors. In particular, optical sensors, operating in the visible/infrared spectral region, have shown their usefulness for providing novel information on physical, geo-chemical and biological processes of the coastal area. Optical remote sensing of the coastal zone finds applications in studies of land use, surface cover, hydrology and coastal ecology at large; of water quality and sediment transport, coastal runoff and circulation, or dynamical processes (looking, e.g., at the evolution of pigment and/or temperature patterns, and their distribution as related to plankton dynamics, currents or river plumes); as well as in those of energy transfer, carbon cycling and climatology in general. Selected applications of optical observation techniques in the Mediterranean region, conducted in the framework of international demonstration programmes (i.e. the Ocean Colour European Archive Network, OCEAN, Project), provide examples of the remote sensing potential in the field of integrated coastal/marine environmental management.     

Financing marine conservation tourism: Governing entrance fees in Raja Ampat,Indonesia

Worldwide, the growth of marine tourism is creating opportunities for financing marine protected areas (MPAs), but what these financial arrangements look like and how they can be governed at larger scales, and in equitable and transparent ways, is unclear. This paper examines the governance arrangement of two region-wide successive entrance fee systems established since 1997 in Raja Ampat, Indonesia, to finance a network of MPAs delineated under the auspices of two big international non-governmental organizations (NGO), namely Raja Ampat Entrance Fee and Raja Ampat Ecosystem Service Stewardship Fee. These two successive entrance fee systems can be viewed as payment for environmental services (PES) arrangements. The PES-like entrance fee arrangements improved in terms of participation, transparency and equity. In the second scheme, local communities in Raja Ampat were involved in the design of the disbursement of the community fund, and the criteria for disbursement became more clear and transparent. However, in both schemes there is no clear connection between the distribution of the funds and activities that improve environmental services provision (conditionality). In addition, the latter scheme is still facing equity challenges as some communities with customary rights over marine tourism hotspots are asking for additional user-fees from tourists and tourism operators.     

Basic Criteria for Comprehensive Classification of Russia’s Azov–Black Sea Coasts

Constant seacoast changes represent a natural process for coastal geosystems; moreover, the extent of technogenically transformed coasts is constantly growing. It is impossible to create coastal economic development and conservation plans without understanding how environmental conditions and technogenic transformation affect coastal geosystems. Successful integrated use of the seacoast requires reliable information on the magnitude of observed and projected changes, the admissibility of anthropogenic changes to the coast, and adaption of economic activity to such possible changes. The paper discusses the basic principles for comprehensively assessing Russian coastal areas. A system of criteria is proposed to qualitatively assess the economic and environmental importance of individual coastal areas and their resistance to possible changes. These criteria are tested in some areas of Russia’s Azov–Black Sea coast. A preliminary assessment has shown that accumulative shores are the most dynamic and prone to natural hazards.     

东亚海区的海岸带综合管理经验:从地方性示范到区域性合作

本文阐述了东亚海区海岸带综合管理实践如何从地方性的示范发展到区域性的合作管理框架，如何实现海洋和海岸带资源的可持续利用．文中着重突出了厦门市政府在维持环境保护和经济发展的平衡，启动和实施海岸带综合管理，以及与沿海国在国际合作方面的经验，总结了厦门实施海岸带综合管理的主要经验，包括多部门间综合协调机制、海岸带综合管理法律框架、科技支撑体系的建立，海洋功能区划、环境剖面和战略环境管理计划的制定，以及实现海上联合执法等等．同时阐述了东亚海域环境管理区域合作计划（PEMSEA）与澳大利亚合作伙伴之间的关系在推动沿海城市的国际合作中将起到的作用．     

Ocean governance in the South Pacific region: Progress and plans for action

The Pacific Island Regional Ocean Policy (PIROP), which was released in 2002, provided the framework for ocean governance in the Pacific region. Since then there have been a myriad of policy documents and institutional arrangements that have been developed to address ocean governance issues, however, little progress has occurred with regard to the actual implementation of PIROP. This paper examines the region's progress in establishing integrated oceans management, and how this fits with the use of marine spatial planning and area based management tools, such as marine protected areas. It argues that policy making in this region encounters the usual difficulties with integrated policy approaches experienced elsewhere but that these difficulties are further accentuated when applied to developing nations that are highly dependent on external support. It suggests a way forward for the future with development of action plans, implementation and the practical application of those plans including a regional contextualisation/analysis of progress against regional objectives.     

环境变化对造礁石珊瑚营养方式的影响及其适应性

造礁石珊瑚是珊瑚礁生态系统的框架生物,它们既能够通过共生藻的光合作用进行自养,也能够通过触手捕获和黏液吸附等方式进行异养。通过研究造礁石珊瑚光合自养以及异养营养的机理和过程,系统分析了光照、温度、营养盐、潮汐、水流、CO2质量浓度以及食物的可获得性等因素对造礁石珊瑚光合自养和异养营养产生的影响,并讨论了珊瑚的这2种营养方式对环境变化的适应性。在环境适宜的条件下,光合自养是健康造礁石珊瑚的主要营养方式;当珊瑚自养营养的供给受到限制时,异养营养能够在一定程度上弥补其营养缺失,甚至可能成为珊瑚的主要营养方式。造礁石珊瑚的2种营养方式能够对不同环境因素的变化做出不同响应,并通过两者之间的互补以适应环境变化。今后研究的重点应放在归纳各类因素对造礁石珊瑚2种营养方式的影响;深入研究造礁石珊瑚异养营养方式的规律与环境适应性;厘清造礁石珊瑚光合自养与异养营养之间的关系和协调模式。     

海洋环境立体监测系统中计算机网络的安全策略

针对就海洋立体环境监测系统网络环境安全技术问题 ,论述了这一问题的安全策略的解决方法。这对于海洋立体环境监测系统网络的安全策略技术设计具有一定的意义     

Coastal and marine resource use conflicts and sustainable development in Tanzania

A survey of coastal and marine resource use conflicts in Tanzania was carried out to highlight them, investigate their origin and finally, suggest ways of minimizing them. Although Tanzania is putting emphasis on environmental issues, including coastal zone management, integrated coastal area management has not yet been integrated into the government management structure/approach. Many conflicts are the result of sectoral approach to coastal and marine resources management, and improper or poor implementation of government policies. Additionally, the local coastal community, who are the foremost stakeholder, were most often not involved in the planning, decision and implementation of many projects and policies even those that affect them directly. Ignorance about the linkages of coastal and marine ecosystems and resources is also an important factor. I suggest that integrated coastal area management which is the foundation for sustainable development, as far as coastal and marine resources are concerned, should be integrated into the government administrative structure. A lead agency with full authority on all activities on the coastal area, including issuance of permits for environmental sensitive businesses/activities, should be nominated or established. This will reduce conflicts by bringing about national coordination of coastal area management.     

When the oil and fishing industries live side by side

When two industries make competing claims to exploit resources in the same geographic area, conflicts may arise. While a substantial literature deals with the resolution of such conflicts between industrial interests and environmental conservation, the research on successful resolution of coastal industry-industry conflicts is limited. As noted by [45], “the emerging field of coastal conflict research has no clear contours. It develops from different disciplines, theories, approaches, practical knowledge requirements, and does not become, as far as can be foreseen, a fully integrated knowledge field…in-depth analysis of conflicts and empirically based approaches to conflict resolutions are hardly found”. This article fills some of these knowledge gaps by empirically analysing how and to what extent the Norwegian regime governing the relationship between the oil and fishery industries along the Norwegian coast helps reduce conflict levels and resolve the conflicts that nevertheless arise. The article builds on both regime theory and conflict resolution theory to analyse its institutional design and effects, posing two research questions: First, what is the institutional design of the Norwegian oil and fisheries coexistence regime? Second: to what extent does the regime reduce the conflict potential and contribute towards conflict resolution?     

无居民海岛保护利用中的军民融合法律政策研究

为了对无居民海岛的环境与自然资源进行更好的保护,作者通过对国家政策和学界相关文献的浏览和分析,发现将军民融合战略融入到无居民海岛的环保工作中,将有效弥补《海岛保护法》的缺陷,在促进军民融合发展战略的落实的同时,可以兼顾环境保护效的质量和经济发展的效益,更好地维护国家主权和国家生态安全。     

Towards integrated coastal management in Solomon Islands: Identifying strategic issues for governance reform

This paper evaluates governance arrangements in Solomon Islands in terms of their ability to achieve the integrated management of coastal environments. The paper uses a modified version of the framework proposed by Ehler CN [Indicators in measure governance performance in integrated coastal management. Ocean & Coastal Management 2003; 46: 335–345] for evaluating governance performance. The results point to a systemic failure of coastal governance in Solomon Islands. The paper identifies the strategic issues for governance reform if the management of coastal environments and resources in Solomon Islands is to be improved.     

Protecting the North-East Atlantic: enhancing synergies by institutional interplay

This article examines the interplay between three different international institutions on marine pollution in the North Sea and the wider North-East Atlantic: the International North Sea Conferences (INSC), the OSPAR-Convention and preceding conventions as well as the European Union (EU). It argues that interplay between these institutions have proved synergetic in two ways. First, the INSC-process has speeded up decision-making within OSPAR and the EU by means of leadership, change in membership and institutional arrangements. Second, OSPAR and the EU have subsequently facilitated domestic implementation of the North Sea Conference Declarations by means of higher authoritativeness and enforcement competence. These three institutions have fulfilled different functions all of which are needed to make international environmental cooperation effective.     

Trade measures and the combat of IUU fishing: Institutional interplay and effective governance in the Northeast Atlantic

The use of trade measures to combat illegal, unreported and unregulated (IUU) fishing in the Northeast Atlantic has evolved from unilateral denial of the landing of fish taken outside international quota arrangements to a multilateral Scheme of Control and Enforcement under the North-East Atlantic Fisheries Commission (NEAFC). International trade rules have not constrained this development, mostly due to successful management of the interplay between international resource management and trade regimes. States protect resource management objectives from such constraint by inserting clauses that establish a normative hierarchy, or they employ various means for adapting IUU measures to the ‘environmental window’ of the global trade regime. The fact that regional states have introduced trade restrictions only when non-restrictive or less restrictive measures have failed enhances such compatibility, as do the gradual shift from unilateral to multilateral measures and the rise in transparency, openness and target-state involvement. None of those features reduces the effectiveness of regional trade measures; they minimize tension with trade commitments and largely strengthen their clout in the struggle to combat IUU fishing in the Northeast Atlantic.     

Market driven management of climate change impacts in the Spanish mussel sector

Mussel farming is the largest aquaculture activity in Spain both in volume and value, being a key pillar for the development of the coastal areas in Galicia (NW Spain), where this production is concentrated. The available scientific knowledge suggests that in the long term the primary productivity of the Galician estuaries will be reduced due to climate change. Consequently, adaptive management will be required to face this challenge. The impact of the likely production decrease will depend, among other factors, on the availability of substitutes, being their identification the main object of this research. So, it was analysed whether this markets are integrated or not through cointegration tests, finding that only the French and the Spanish markets are partially integrated. This implies that since very little substitutes are available for the Galician fresh mussels, decreases in production will not necessarily affect producer's income, as prices increases will compensate the (eventual) reduction in volume. In terms of policy, this study suggests that market intelligence may contribute to an adaptive, pragmatic and flexible framework to face climate change impacts, avoiding too anticipated or blind responses that may result in economic, environmental and social costs.