A comparison of PMIP2 model simulations and the MARGO proxy reconstruction for tropical sea surface temperatures at last glacial maximum

Results from multiple model simulations are used to understand the tropical sea surface temperature (SST) response to the reduced greenhouse gas concentrations and large continental ice sheets of the last glacial maximum (LGM). We present LGM simulations from the Paleoclimate Modelling Intercomparison Project, Phase 2 (PMIP2) and compare these simulations to proxy data collated and harmonized within the Multiproxy Approach for the Reconstruction of the Glacial Ocean Surface Project (MARGO). Five atmosphere–ocean coupled climate models (AOGCMs) and one coupled model of intermediate complexity have PMIP2 ocean results available for LGM. The models give a range of tropical (defined for this paper as 15°S–15°N) SST cooling of 1.0–2.4°C, comparable to the MARGO estimate of annual cooling of 1.7 ± 1°C. The models simulate greater SST cooling in the tropical Atlantic than tropical Pacific, but interbasin and intrabasin variations of cooling are much smaller than those found in the MARGO reconstruction. The simulated tropical coolings are relatively insensitive to season, a feature also present in the MARGO transferred-based estimates calculated from planktonic foraminiferal assemblages for the Indian and Pacific Oceans. These assemblages indicate seasonality in cooling in the Atlantic basin, with greater cooling in northern summer than northern winter, not captured by the model simulations. Biases in the simulations of the tropical upwelling and thermocline found in the preindustrial control simulations remain for the LGM simulations and are partly responsible for the more homogeneous spatial and temporal LGM tropical cooling simulated by the models. The PMIP2 LGM simulations give estimates for the climate sensitivity parameter of 0.67°–0.83°C per Wm⁻², which translates to equilibrium climate sensitivity for doubling of atmospheric CO₂ of 2.6–3.1°C.     

Influence of the Preceding Austral Summer Southern Hemisphere Annular Mode on the Amplitude of ENSO Decay

There is increasing evidence of the possible role of extratropical forcing in the evolution of ENSO.The Southern Hemisphere Annular Mode(SAM) is the dominant mode of atmospheric circulation in the Southern Hemisphere extratropics.This study shows that the austral summer(December–January–February; DJF) SAM may also influence the amplitude of ENSO decay during austral autumn(March–April–May;MAM).The mechanisms associated with this SAM–ENSO relationship can be briefly summarized as follows:The SAM is positively(negatively) correlated with SST in the Southern Hemisphere middle(high) latitudes.This dipole-like SST anomaly pattern is referred to as the Southern Ocean Dipole(SOD).The DJF SOD,caused by the DJF SAM,could persist until MAM and then influence atmospheric circulation,including trade winds,over the Nio3.4 area.Anomalous trade winds and SST anomalies over the Nio3.4 area related to the DJF SAM are further developed through the Bjerkness feedback,which eventually results in a cooling(warming) over the Nio3.4 area followed by the positive(negative) DJF SAM.     

The Southern Westerlies during the last glacial maximum in PMIP2 simulations

The Southern Hemisphere westerly winds are an important component of the climate system at hemispheric and global scales. Variations in their intensity and latitudinal position through an ice-age cycle have been proposed as important drivers of global climate change due to their influence on deep-ocean circulation and changes in atmospheric CO₂. The position, intensity, and associated climatology of the southern westerlies during the last glacial maximum (LGM), however, is still poorly understood from empirical and modelling standpoints. Here we analyse the behaviour of the southern westerlies during the LGM using four coupled ocean-atmosphere simulations carried out by the Palaeoclimate Modelling Intercomparison Project Phase 2 (PMIP2). We analysed the atmospheric circulation by direct inspection of the winds and by using a cyclone tracking software to indicate storm tracks. The models suggest that changes were most significant during winter and over the Pacific ocean. For this season and region, three out four models indicate decreased wind intensities at the near surface as well as in the upper troposphere. Although the LGM atmosphere is colder and the equator to pole surface temperature gradient generally increases, the tropospheric temperature gradients actually decrease, explaining the weaker circulation. We evaluated the atmospheric influence on the Southern Ocean by examining the effect of wind stress on the Ekman pumping. Again, three of the models indicate decreased upwelling in a latitudinal band over the Southern Ocean. All models indicate a drier LGM than at present with a clear decrease in precipitation south of 40°S over the oceans. We identify important differences in precipitation anomalies over the land masses at regional scale, including a drier climate over New Zealand and wetter over NW Patagonia.     

The Springtime North Asia Cyclone Activity Index and the Southern Annular Mode

The relationship between the North Asia cyclone （NAC） activity and the Southern Annular Mode （SAM） is documented in this research. The definition of the NAC index （NACI） is based on the atmospheric relative vorticity in North Asia. The analysis yields a significant positive correlation between previous winter Southern Annular Mode index （SAMI） and spring NACI in the interannual variability, with a correlation coefficient of 0.51 during 1948-2000. Analysis of the NAC-related and SAM-related atmospheric general circulation variability demonstrates such a relationship. The study further reveals that when the winter SAM becomes strong, the springtime atmospheric convection in tropical western Pacific will intensify and the local Hadley circulation will be strengthened. As a result, the abnormal subsiding motion over South China makes the temperature gradient intensified in the low level and strengthens the jet in the high level, both of which are beneficial to the development of NAC activity.     

南大洋淡水强迫对南半球环状模的影响分析

南半球环状模是南半球热带外大气环流变异的主导模态,对南半球海洋—大气—海冰耦合系统有重要的影响。冰川融化激发的淡水强迫是南大洋的一种重要外强迫。在历史气候记录中,南大洋淡水通量异常曾引发数次全球性气候异常事件。基于海—气完全耦合模式FOAM,在60°S以南的海洋中施加强度为1.0 Sv的理想化淡水通量异常,分析南半球环状模的响应。结果表明：南大洋淡水通量异常可使局地西风增强,且西风的增强在垂向各个层次上均有体现。西风强度的变化导致对流层中大气斜压性增强,平流层中大气斜压性减弱。此外,淡水强迫使环状模的年际变率振幅显著减弱,而年代际变率开始增强,谱能量的变化具有垂向一致性。海温和海冰等外强迫因子的变化对环状模年代际振幅的增强具有重要意义。     

Paleoclimate simulations of the mid-Holocene and last glacial maximum by FGOALS

Paleoclimate simulations of the mid-Holocene (MH) and Last Glacial maximum (LGM) by the latest versions of the Flexible Global Ocean-Atmosphere-Land System model, Spectral Version 2 and Grid-point Version 2 (FGOALS-s2 and g2) are evaluated in this study. The MH is characterized by changes of insolation induced by orbital parameters, and the LGM is a glacial period with large changes in greenhouse gases, sea level and ice sheets. For the MH, both versions of FGOALS simulate reasonable responses to the changes of insolation, such as the enhanced summer monsoon in African-Asian regions. Model differences can be identified at regional and seasonal scales. The global annual mean surface air temperature (TAS) shows no significant change in FGOALS-s2, while FGOALS-g2 shows a global cooling of about 0.7 C that is related with a strong cooling during boreal winter. The amplitude of ENSO is weaker in FGOALS-g2, which agrees with proxy data. For the LGM, FGOALS-g2 captures the features of the cold and dry glacial climate, including a global cooling of 4.6 C and a decrease in precipitation by 10%. The ENSO is weaker at the LGM, with a tendency of stronger ENSO cold events. Sensitivity analysis shows that the Equilibrium Climate Sensitivity (ECS) estimated for FGOALS ranges between 4.23 C and 4.59 C. The sensitivity of precipitation to the changes of TAS is～2.3% C-1 , which agrees with previous studies. FGOALS-g2 shows better simulations of the Atlantic Meridional Overturning Circulation (AMOC) and African summer monsoon precipitation in the MH when compared with FGOALS-g1.0; however, it is hard to conclude any improvements for the LGM.     

Impact of the Preceding Boreal Winter Southern Annular Mode on the Summertime Somali Jet

One of the major high-latitude circulation systems in the Southern Hemisphere is the Southern Annular Mode（SAM）. Its effect on the Somali Jet（SMJ）, which connects the Southern and Northern hemispheres, cannot be ignored. The present reported results show that time series of both the Southern Annular Mode Index（SAMI） during the preceding winter and the summertime Somali Jet intensity Index（SMJI） display a significant increasing trend and have similar interdecadal variation. The latter was rather strong around 1960, then became weaker up to the mid-1980 s, before starting to strengthen again. The lead-lag correlations of monthly mean SAMI with the following summertime SMJI showed significant positive correlations in November, December, and January. There are thus connections across two seasons between the SAM and the SMJ. The influence of the winter SAM on the summer SMJ was explored via analyses of SST anomalies in the Southern Indian Ocean. During strong（weak） SAM/SMJ years, the SST east of Madagascar is colder（warmer） while the SST west of Australia is warmer（colder）, corresponding to the positive（negative） Southern Indian Ocean Dipole-like（SIODL） event. Subsequently, the SIODL excites an anticyclone located over the Arabian Sea in summer through air-sea coupling from winter to summer, which causes an increase in the summer SMJ intensity. The anticyclone/high branch of the SAM over the Southern Hemisphere subtropics and the cyclone/low over the east coast of Madagascar play an important role in the formation of Southern Indian Ocean ＂bridge＂ from winter to summer.     

Intermodel Diversity of Simulated Long-term Changes in the Austral Winter Southern Annular Mode: Role of the Southern Ocean Dipole

The Southern Annular Mode(SAM)plays an important role in regulating Southern Hemisphere extratropical circulation.State-of-the-art models exhibit intermodel spread in simulating long-term changes in the SAM.Results from Atmospheric Model Intercomparison Project(AMIP)experiments from 28 models archived in CMIP5 show that the intermodel spread in the linear trend in the austral winter(June?July?August)SAM is significant,with an intermodel standard deviation of 0.28(10 yr)?1,larger than the multimodel ensemble mean of 0.18(10 yr)?1.This study explores potential factors underlying the model difference from the aspect of extratropical sea surface temperature(SST).Extratropical SST anomalies related to the SAM exhibit a dipole-like structure between middle and high latitudes,referred to as the Southern Ocean Dipole(SOD).The role of SOD-like SST anomalies in influencing the SAM is found in the AMIP simulations.Model performance in simulating the SAM trend is linked with model skill in reflecting the SOD?SAM relationship.Models with stronger linkage between the SOD and the SAM tend to simulate a stronger SAM trend.The explained variance is about 40%in the AMIP runs.These results suggest improved simulation of the SOD?SAM relationship may help reproduce long-term changes in the SAM.     

月内尺度北半球环状模水平和垂直活动特征分析

采用李建平等定义的更好表征北半球环状模变化的指数,利用NCEP/NCAR逐日再分析资料,从对流层的角度分析了北半球环状模在月内时间尺度上的相关环流的垂直和水平传播特征.结果表明,在水平方向上,温度异常在对流层,尤其是近地层,表现为由极区和高纬度地区向中低纬度地区强的南传特征,而在平流层则为由中低纬度地区向高纬度地区弱的...     

南半球环状模事件的准地转调整过程分析

本文利用NCEP/NCAR逐日再分析资料,分析了南半球环状模（SAM）事件生命过程中的准地转调整过程.由于SAM沿纬圈的水平尺度远远大于临界尺度罗斯贝变形半径,因此要求纬向风场在地转调整过程向气压场适应以达到地转平衡.研究结果表明,在纬向平均环流中,异常Ferrel环流强度的变化超前于SAM强度变化约2/16位相,异常Ferrel环流能够通过超前的整层大气质量的经向输运,改变中高纬度的质量分布装状况,导致中、高纬度地区间的位势高度梯度异常变化,而中、高纬度地区间的位势高度梯度异常发生变化就意味着SAM强度和位相发生变化;而当SAM强度和位相发生改变后,即中、高纬度地区南北方向上的位势高度梯度发生变化后,可破坏中纬度地区纬向风场与位势高度场之间的地转平衡,产生地转偏差;地转偏差产生后,又可驱动经向散度风场,造成Ferrel环流异常的变化,由此形成一个自我内部循环调整过程.     

Relationships among the monsoon-like southwest Australian circulation,the Southern Annular Mode,and winter rainfall over southwest Western Australia

This study examines the relationships among the monsoon-like southwest Australian circulation (SWAC), the Southern Annular Mode (SAM), and southwest Western Australia winter rainfall (SWR), based on observed rainfall, reanalysis datasets, and the results of numerical modeling. By decomposing the SWAC into two components using a linear model, i.e. the component related to SAM (RSAM) and the component unrelated to SAM (SWACI*), we find it is the SWACI* that shows a significant influence on SWR. Similarly, it is the component of SAM associated with SWAC that exhibits an impact on SWR, whereas the component unrelated to SAM. A similar result is obtained in terms of the circulation associated with SWAC and the SAM. These facts suggest the SAM plays an indirect role in influencing SWR, and raise the possibility that SWAC acts as a bridge between the SAM and SWR, by which the SAM passes its influences onto SWR. This is due to the fact that the variations of SWAC are closely linked to the thermal contrast between land and sea across the southern Indian Ocean and southwest Australia. By contrast, the SAM does not significantly relate to this thermal structure, particularly for the component unrelated to SWAC. The variations of surface sea temperature over the southern Indian Ocean contribute to the favored rainfall circulation patterns. This finding is supported by the numerical modeling results. The strong coupling between SWAC and SWR may be instrumental for understanding the interactions between SWR and the southern Indian Ocean, and provides another perspective in examining the variations in SWR.     

Dominant SST Mode in the Southern Hemisphere Extratropics and Its Influence on Atmospheric Circulation

The variability in the Southern Ocean(SO) sea surface temperature(SST) has drawn increased attention due to its unique physical features; therefore, the temporal characteristics of the SO SST anomalies(SSTA) and their influence on extratropical atmospheric circulation are addressed in this study. Results from empirical orthogonal function analysis show that the principal mode of the SO SSTA exhibits a dipole-like structure, suggesting a negative correlation between the SSTA in the middle and high latitudes, which is referred to as the SO Dipole(SOD) in this study. The SOD features strong zonal symmetry, and could reflect more than 50% of total zonal-mean SSTA variability. We find that stronger(weaker) Subantarctic and Antarctic polar fronts are related to the positive(negative) phases of the SOD index, as well as the primary variability of the large-scale SO SSTA meridional gradient. During December–January–February, the Ferrel cell and the polar jet shift toward the Antarctic due to changes in the SSTA that could be associated with a positive phase of the SOD, and are also accompanied by a poleward shift of the subtropical jet. During June–July–August, in association with a positive SOD, the Ferrel cell and the polar jet are strengthened, accompanied by a strengthened subtropical jet. These seasonal differences are linked to the differences in the configuration of the polar jet and the subtropical jet in the Southern Hemisphere.     

南半球环状模气候影响的若干研究进展

南半球环状模是南半球热带外地区环流变率的主导模态。由于南半球环状模在空间上的大尺度特征,全球多个地区的气候均与南半球环状模的变化有关。探讨南半球环状模的气候影响,是近几十年来得到广泛关注并迅速发展的新方向。围绕这个方向,分别回顾了南半球环状模对南半球和北半球气候影响的研究进展,重点阐述了南半球环状模对中国气候影响的相关工作,并从长期变化尺度上,列举了南半球环状模与气候变化方面的研究成果。纵观近几十年的研究发现,针对南半球环状模对南半球的气候影响,目前已有比较系统的认识。总体而言,在年际尺度上,南半球环状模可以通过影响垂直环流和风暴轴的位置,改变表面风速对下垫面的热力和动力驱动作用,进而对南半球的海-气-冰耦合系统产生调控。这种调控多表现出纬向对称性,同时也存在纬向非对称的局地特征。在气候变化的尺度上,南半球环状模是过去半个世纪里南半球气候变化的主要驱动力之一。关于南半球环状模对北半球尤其是中国气候的影响问题,目前也取得了许多有意义的结果。例如,南半球环状模对东亚、西非、北美的夏季风和东亚冬季风均有作用,并且可以调控中国春季华南降水等。海-气耦合过程在南半球环状模对北半球气候的影响中扮演着重要角色,与南半球环状模信号的跨季节存储和由南半球向北半球的传播均有密切关系。但是,与南半球相比,南半球环状模对北半球气候影响的研究,还有许多问题值得深入讨论和研究：一是体现在对南半球环状模信号向北传播机制上的深入认识,二是将南半球环状模的信号作为因子在季节气候预测中的实践。     

与西澳州西南部冬季降水相联系的大气环流特征分析

西澳大利亚州西南部(SWWA)是西澳大利亚州首府Perth的所在地,也是西澳州政治、经济、文化、教育和旅游的中心.自20世纪中期以来,SWWA地区雨季降水持续减少.本文利用近60年的观测及再分析数据,分析了已知的影响澳大利亚降水的热带海洋模态:厄尔尼诺—南方涛动(ENSO)、印度洋偶极子(IOD)和ENSOModoki...     

天津地区雨季降水异常年大气环流特征分析

利用1958—2009年天津地区和中国160站月总降水资料以及NCEP/NCAR月平均再分析数据资料集,采用相关分析和合成分析,分别研究了天津地区雨季降水的变化特征以及异常年同期（7—8月）和前期（前一年1 2月至当年6月）大气环流的特征。结果表明：天津地区的降水大部分集中于雨季且雨季降水存在着年际变化和年代际变化。天津地区雨季降水偏多年同期,西太平洋副热带高压主体偏北,天津地区西北部有低值系统发展,对流层低层有正涡度发展,辐合上升运动较强,南亚高压和高空副热带西风急流偏北,西南暖湿气流输送较强;雨季降水偏少年同期情况正好相反。此外,天津地区雨季降水与前期夏季6月SAM（南半球环状模）存在显著的反相关关系,这为天津地区雨季降水的短期气候预测提供了有参考意义的前兆信号。     

Evaluation of Atmospheric Circulation in the Southern Hemisphere in 20CRv2

Evaluation of the mean climate and climate variability in the Southern Hemisphere(SH)in the Twentieth Century Reanalysis data version 2(20CRv2)is conducted and the results are compared with the NCEP/NCAR version 2 Reanalysis data(NCEPv2)and the Hadley Center sea-level pressure data(HadSLPv2).The results show that SH polar High,SH subtropical High,upper level split jet,cross-equatorial flow,Antarctic Oscillation(AAO),and the pattern of Pacific-South-America(PSA)has been effectively captured by 20CRv2 during1979–2010,with an apparent zonal asymmetry of AAO in the austral winter(June-July-August,JJA).The notable upward linear trend of AAO in the entire period of 1871–2010 is represented in both 20CRv2 and HadSlPv2.The most remarkable discrepancy of the SH climate variability between 20CRv2 and HadSLPv2 occurred in 1897–1920and was partly caused by such factors as the paucity of meteorological and oceanographic data in the SH to be assimilated,the handling of the specified sea-ice concentration in South Pole,and imperfect climate models.The consistency of these reanalysis data is increased with the use of a large amount of satellite observation and radiosonde data,particularly after 1979.     

南半球环流异常对夏季西太平洋热带气旋生成的影响及其机理

利用中国气象局提供的热带气旋资料、NCEP/NCAR再分析资料和美国NOAA向外长波辐射(OLR)等资料, 研究了西太平洋(125°E～150°E)夏季热带气旋生成频数多寡的可能机理, 讨论了南北半球环流系统共同作用的物理过程及其对热带辐合带(Intertropical Convergence Zone, 简称ITCZ), 进而对热带气旋频数的影响, 并重点探论了从澳大利亚东侧位势高度异常到北半球西太平洋热带气旋频数响应的可能物理过程。研究发现: 澳大利亚东侧的环流异常和西太平洋热带气旋活动频数密切相关。南半球的澳大利亚东侧环流异常可能不完全是通过越赤道气流, 而主要是通过Rossby波的传播造成的南北半球遥相关作用, 影响北半球环流系统的, 进而影响菲律宾以东赤道辐合带对流活动的强弱, 导致西太平洋热带气旋生成频数的多寡差异。当澳大利亚东侧的位势高度为正距平时, 相应地在菲律宾以东地区也会出现正距平。即西太平洋副高偏强, 且偏南西伸, 抑制热带辐合带的对流活动发展, 使菲律宾以东的对流活动偏弱, 从而使热带气旋生成频数偏少。而当澳大利亚东侧的位势高度为负距平时, 相应地在菲律宾以东地区也会出现负距平。也即西太平洋副高偏弱, 且位置偏北。菲律宾以东地区对流活动偏强, 热带气旋生成频数偏多。另外, 西太平洋 (125°E～150°E) 以西的上游赤道西风也对热带气旋频数也有重要影响。具体表现为, 当90°E附近的越赤道气流强时, (5°N～15°N, 125°E～150°E)范围内的西风也随之加强, 从而使菲律宾以东对流活动加强, 西太平洋热带气旋频数增高。反之, 当该支越赤道气流弱时, 上游赤道西风随之偏弱, 从而造成菲律宾以东对流活动偏弱, 西太平洋热带气旋生成偏少。     

ECMWF细网格2 m温度预报产品在南疆西部温度预报中的释用

利用2016年1月1日—2018年12月31日ECMWF细网格模式2 m温度预报产品,使用三次多项式差值方法内插到站点,并用中短期天气预报检验方法,对南疆西部12个国家站与15个区域自动站共27个站的最高、最低气温未来24 h预报效果进行检验分析。结果表明：ECMWF细网格模式2 m温度预报产品对南疆西部非山区站未来24 h最高、最低气温的预报能力较好,对山区站未来24 h预报效果差;对南疆西部最高、最低气温的预报效果随季节变化,夏季预报准确率高于冬季,秋季预报准确率最低;模式最高气温预报准确率在降雪、高温天气时较高,最低气温预报准确率在降雨时较高,在高温过程中较低;模式对于降雨、降雪、大风/沙尘等天气最高气温预报偏低,高温事件中最高气温预报偏高。最低气温预报在降雨、高温天气中偏高,降雪时偏低,大风/沙尘天气最低气温预报偏东地区偏高、偏北地区偏低。降雪、高温天气预报相对降雨、大风/沙尘天气预报效果更稳定。