金星非单调冷却热演化历史分析

金星表层年龄和构造活动特点表明其岩石层在最近的地质历史时期经历过广泛的更新.这种全球性的表层改造与其内部热演化历史进程密切相关.如果金星存在相变形成的上、下地幔,依据现今所了解的金星物理性质和参量化的热对流理论,并且考虑金星地幔相变边界层状态对对流的控制作用,我们计算了金星热演化历史.结果表明,金星的热演化历史是一种非单调的冷却过程,在这种非单调的热演化历史进程中,金星地幔会出现大体等周期的翻转.由于参数选取的不同,翻转时金星上、下地幔的温差随时间可能出现稳定变化、逐渐加强、逐渐减弱三种不同演化模式,目前尚不能确定实际金星热演化历史究竟是哪一种模式.金星地幔相变边界层的穿透对流可能是推动其表层岩石层全球性更新的关键,导致其表层火山活动和地表构造以大致500 Ma时间间隔更新和重造.     

The impact of pre-existing gas on the ascent of explosively erupted magma

Most, if not all, magmas contain gas bubbles at depth before they erupt. Those bubbles play a crucial role in eruption dynamics, by allowing magma to degas, which causes the magma to accelerate as it ascends towards the surface. There must be a limit to that acceleration, however, because gas bubbles cannot grow infinitely fast. To explore that limit, a series of experiments was undertaken to determine the maximum rate at which bubbly high-silica rhyolite can decompress. Rhyolite melt that was hydrated at 150 MPa with ~5.3 wt.% dissolved water and contained 7 to 18 vol.% bubbles can degas in equilibrium at 875°C when decompressed at rates up to 1.2 MPa s⁻¹ from 150 to 78 MPa, and up to 1.8 MPa s⁻¹ when decompressed further to 42 MPa. In contrast, that same rhyolite cannot degas in equilibrium at 750°C if decompressed faster than 0.015–0.025 MPa s⁻¹. When combined with other published experiments, the maximum rate of decompression for equilibrium degassing is found to increase by a factor of ten for every 50–75°C increase in temperature. When compared to predictions from conduit flow models that assume equilibrium degassing, it is found that such models greatly over-estimate the rate at which relatively cold rhyolite can decompress, whereas that assumption is largely correct for hot rhyolite, and thus for most other magmas, all of which are less viscous than rhyolite. In addition, most bubbles that were 20–30 μm in size at high pressure were lost from the population at low pressure. That absence suggests that only relatively large vesicles seen in volcanic pumice may be relics of pre-eruptive bubbles, even if small bubbles were originally present at depth.     

Magma supply,magma ascent and the style of volcanic eruptions

We propose a new way of looking at the sequence of events leading to different styles of silicic, volcanic eruptions. Small-to-medium sized eruptions, either explosive or effusive, are explained by the ascent of isolated magma batches from mid-crustal magma chambers. We separate magma ascent into four different zones: the Supply System, the Intermediate Storage System, the Transport System and the Eruptive System. Of primary importance is the concept that ascent from the Intermediate Storage System through the Transport System to the Eruptive System first requires the development of a fracture network. Initially, this fracture network allows the ascent of individual magma batches by opening and then closing after their passage. An increase in the complexity of the fracture network with time increases the connectivity of the fractures and hence the ease of upward magma movement. In this model, the dynamics of the ensuing eruptions are controlled entirely by the time spent in the Transport System. Large explosive eruptions require a full interconnectivity of the Transport System from the Intermediate Storage System to the Eruptive System. Moreover, we suggest that a fully connected conduit is rare, develops only under particular conditions, and typically generates catastrophic eruptions during formation. Here we examine two case histories that illustrate the interplay of these processes: Mt St. Helens, USA, between 1980 and 2004, and Mt. Pinatubo, Philippines, in 1991.     

The influence of geometry on the ascent of magma in open fissures

During steady eruption, the flow conditions (emitted mass flux, exit velocity and exit pressure) depend on the geometry of the conduit in which the eruption occurs. This dependence is examined for the onedimensional, isothermal ascent of a homogeneous basaltic magma with an aqueous volatile phase and newtonian rheology. By fixing the geometry of the feeding fissure, the mass flux flowing in steady conditions can be determined at any depth, as well the magma pressure and vertical velocity. Flow behaviour is analysed for three fissure shapes: constant width, slowly upward narrowing and lenticular. In all the cases examined the magma arrives at the earth's surface with a pressure greater than atmospheric. The results are compared with those obtained when a lithostatic pressure gradient is assumed for the magma column. Some speculations are made, moreover, about the change in eruption style, if conduit geometry varies during a non-steady phase.     

Failed magmatic eruptions: late-stage cessation of magma ascent

When a volcano becomes restless, a primary question is whether the unrest will lead to an eruption. Here we recognize four possible outcomes of a magmatic intrusion: “deep intrusion”, “shallow intrusion”, “sluggish/viscous magmatic eruption”, and “rapid, often explosive magmatic eruption”. We define “failed eruptions” as instances in which magma reaches but does not pass the “shallow intrusion” stage, i.e., when magma gets close to, but does not reach, the surface. Competing factors act to promote or hinder the eventual eruption of a magma intrusion. Fresh intrusion from depth, high magma gas content, rapid ascent rates that leave little time for enroute degassing, opening of pathways, and sudden decompression near the surface all act to promote eruption, whereas decreased magma supply from depth, slow ascent, significant enroute degassing and associated increases in viscosity, and impingement on structural barriers all act to hinder eruption. All of these factors interact in complex ways with variable results, but often cause magma to stall at some depth before reaching the surface. Although certain precursory phenomena, such as rapidly escalating seismic swarms or rates of degassing or deformation, are good indicators that an eruption is likely, such phenomena have also been observed in association with intrusions that have ultimately failed to erupt. A perpetual difficulty with quantifying the probability of eruption is a lack of data, particularly on instances of failed eruptions. This difficulty is being addressed in part through the WOVOdat database. Papers in this volume will be an additional resource for scientists grappling with the issue of whether or not an episode of unrest will lead to a magmatic eruption.     

Mechanism of magma ascent and deep feeding channels of island arc volcanoes

The paper discusses the mechanism of deep magma activity beneath island are volcanoes and similar structures on the basis of data from geophysical investigations in Kamchatka; the analyses of forces that cause the ascent of magma; and related phenomena that are due to hydrostatic forces. It is shown that the ascent of magma through the astnenosphere occurs most likely in magma columns with a diameter of approximately 700–2,000 m and with a velocity of about 0.8–3 m/year. A regular line of such columns spaced in Kamchatka at a distance of about 30 km gives rise to a chain of separate Etrge volcanoes or volcanic centers. Ultrabasic magmas are most likely accumulated near the M discontinuity, whereas the apparent place of andesitic magma accumulation is in the earth’s crust near the boundary between the basement and sediments.     

Degassing during magma ascent in the Mule Creek vent (USA)

 The structures and textures of the rhyolite in the Mule Creek vent (New Mexico, USA) indicate mechanisms by which volatiles escape from silicic magma during eruption. The vent outcrop is a 300-m-high canyon wall comprising a section through the top of a feeder conduit, vent and the base of an extrusive lava dome. Field relations show that eruption began with an explosive phase and ended with lava extrusion. Analyses of glass inclusions in quartz phenocrysts from the lava indicate that the magma had a pre-eruptive dissolved water content of 2.5–3.0 wt% and, during eruption, the magma would have been water-saturated over the vertical extent of the present outcrop. However, the vesicularity of the rhyolite is substantially lower than that predicted from closed-system models of vesiculation under equilibrium conditions. At a given elevation in the vent, the volume fraction of primary vesicles in the rhyolite increases from zero close to the vent margin to values of 20–40 vol.% in the central part. In the centre the vesicularity increases upward from approximately 20 vol.% at 300 m below the canyon rim to approximately 40 vol.% at 200 m, above which it shows little increase. To account for the discrepancy between observed vesicularity and measured water content, we conclude that gas escaped during ascent, probably beginning at depths greater than exposed, by flow through the vesicular magma. Gas escape was most efficient near the vent margin, and we postulate that this is due both to the slow ascent of magma there, giving the most time for gas to escape, and to shear, favouring bubble coalescence. Such shear-related permeability in erupting magma is supported by the preserved distribution of textures and vesicularity in the rhyolite: Vesicles are flattened and overlapping near the dense margins and become progressively more isolated and less deformed toward the porous centre. Local zones have textures which suggest the coalescence of bubbles to form permeable, collapsing foams, implying the former existence of channels for gas migration. Local channelling of gas into the country rocks is suggested by the presence of sub-horizontal syn-eruptive rhyolitic tuffisite veins which depart from the vent margin and invade the adjacent country rock. In the central part of the vent, similar local channelling of gas is indicated by steep syn-eruption tuffisite veins which cut the rhyolite itself. We conclude that the suppression of explosive eruption resulted from gas separation from the ascending magma and vent structure by shear-related porous flow and channelling of gas through tuffisite veins. These mechanisms of gas loss may be responsible for the commonly observed transition from explosive to effusive behaviour during the eruption of silicic magma. Received: 24 May 1995 / Accepted: 13 March 1996     

Role of carbon dioxide in the dynamics of magma ascent in explosive eruptions

 The role of carbon dioxide in the dynamics of magma ascent in explosive eruptions is investigated by means of numerical modeling. The model is steady, one-dimensional, and isothermal; it calculates the separated flow of gas and a homogeneous mixture of liquid magma and crystals. The magma properties are calculated on the basis of magma composition and crystal content and are allowed to change along the conduit due to pressure decrease and gas exsolution. The effect of the presence of a two-component (water + carbon dioxide) exsolving gas phase is investigated by performing a parametric study on the CO₂/(H₂O+CO₂) ratio, which is allowed to vary from 0 to 0.5 at either constant total volatile or constant water content. The relatively insoluble carbon dioxide component plays an important role in the location of the volatile-saturation and magma-fragmentation levels and in the distribution of the flow variables in the volcanic conduit. In detail, the results show that an increase of the proportion of carbon dioxide produces a decrease of the mass flow rate, pressure, and exit mixture density, and an increase of the exit gas volume fraction and depth of the fragmentation level. A relevant result is the different role played by water and carbon dioxide in the eruption dynamics; an increasing amount of water produces an increase of the mass flow rate, and an increasing amount of carbon dioxide produces a decrease. Even small amounts of carbon dioxide have major consequences on the eruption dynamics, implying that the multicomponent nature of the volcanic gas must be taken into account in the prediction of the eruption scenario and the forecasting of volcanic hazard. Received: 6 March 1998 / Accepted: 28 October 1998     

Crystallization of microlites and degassing during magma ascent: Constraints on the fluid mechanical behavior of magma during the Tenjo Eruption on Kozu Island, Japan

Bubble and crystal textures provide information with regard to the kinetics of the vesiculation and crystallization processes. They also provide insights into the fluid mechanical behavior of magma in a conduit. We performed textural (bubble and crystal) and compositional analyses of pyroclasts that were obtained from the Tenjo pyroclastic flow, which resulted on account of the eruption in 838 A.D. on Kozu Island, about 200 km south of Tokyo, Japan. Pyroclasts in one flow unit (300∼2,060 kg/m³; average density 1330 kg/m³) can be classified into three types on the basis of vesicle textures. Type I pyroclasts have small isolated spherical bubbles with higher vesicularities (67–77 vol.%) and number density (10.8–11.7 log m⁻³). Type II pyroclasts have vesicularities similar to type I (61–69 vol.%), but most bubbles exhibit evidences of bubble coalescence, and lower number densities than type I (8.9–9.5 log m⁻³). Type III pyroclasts contain highly deformed bubbles with lower vesicularities (16–34 vol.%) and number densities (8.2–9.0 log m⁻³). The microlite volume fraction (DRE converted) also changes consistently across type I, type II, and type III as 0.06, 0.08, and 0.10–0.15, respectively. However, the number density of the microlites remains nearly invariant in all the pyroclast types. These facts indicate that the variation in the microlite volume fraction is controlled not by the number density (i.e., nucleation process), but by the size (i.e., growth process); the growth history of each type of microlite was different. Water content determinations show that the three types of pumices have similar H₂O contents (2.6±0.2 wt%). This fact implies that all three types were quenched at nearly the same depth (35±5 MPa, assuming that the magma was water-saturated) in the conduit. If the crystal sizes are limited only by growth time, a variation in this parameter can be related to the residence time, which is attributed to the flow heterogeneity in the conduit. By assuming a laminar Poiseuille-type flow, these textural observations can be explained by the difference in ascent velocity and shearing motion across the conduit, which in turn results in the differences in growth times of crystals, degrees of deformation, and bubble coalescence. Consequently, for crystals in the inner part of the conduit, the crystal growth time from nucleation to quenching is shorter than that near the conduit wall. The vesicle texture variation of bubbles in types I, II, and III results from the difference in the deformation history, implying that the effect of degassing occurred primarily towards the conduit wall.     

On the interaction between convection and crystallization in cooling magma chambers

We investigate the interaction of thermal convection and crystallization in large aspect-ratio magma chambers. Because nucleation requires a finite amount of undercooling, crystallization is not instantaneous. For typical values of the rates of nucleation and crystal growth, the characteristic time-scale of crystallization is about 10³–10⁴ s. Roof convection is characterized by the quasi-periodic formation and instability of a cold boundary layer. Its characteristic time-scale depends on viscosity and ranges from about 10² s for basaltic magmas to about 10⁷ s for granitic magmas. Hence, depending on magma viscosity, convective instability occurs at different stages of crystallization. A single non-dimensional number is defined to characterize the different modes of interaction between convection and crystallization.Using realistic functions for the rates of nucleation and crystal growth, we integrate numerically the heat equation until the onset of convective instability. We determine both temperature and crystal content in the thermal boundary layer. Crystallization leads to a dramatic increase of viscosity which acts to stabilize part of the boundary layer against instability. We compute the effective temperature contrast driving thermal convection and show that it varies as a function of magma viscosity and hence composition.In magmas with viscosities higher than 10⁵ poise, the temperature contrast driving convection is very small, hence thermal convection is weak. In low-viscosity magmas, convective breakdown occurs before the completion of crystallization, and involves partially crystallized magma. The convective regime is thus characterized by descending crystal-bearing plumes, and bottom crystallization proceeds both by in-situ nucleation and deposition from the plumes. We suggest that this is the origin of intermittent layering, a form of rhythmic layering described in the Skaergaard and other complexes. We show that this regime occurs in basic magmas only at temperatures close to the liquidus and never occurs in viscous magmas. This may explain why intermittent layering is observed only in a few specific cases.     

Phenocryst crystallization during ascent of alkali basalt magma at Rishiri Volcano, northern Japan

Phenocrysts in volcanic rocks are commonly used to deduce crystallization processes in magma chambers. A fundamental assumption is that the phenocrysts crystallized in the magma chambers at isobaric and nearly equilibrium conditions, on the basis of their large sizes. However, this assumption is not always true as demonstrated here for a porphyritic alkali basalt (Kutsugata lava) from Rishiri Volcano, northern Japan. All phenocryst phases in the Kutsugata lava, plagioclase, olivine, and augite, have macroscopically homogeneous distribution of textures showing features characteristic of rapid growth throughout the crystals. Rarely, a core region with distinct composition is present in all phenocryst phases. Phenocrysts, excluding this core, are occasionally in direct contact with each other, forming crystal aggregates. The equilibrium liquidus temperature of plagioclase, the dominant phase (35 vol%) in the Kutsugata lava, can never exceed the estimated magmatic temperature, unless the liquidus temperature increases significantly due to vesiculation of the magma during ascent. This suggests that most phenocrysts in the Kutsugata lava were formed by decompression of the magma during ascent in a conduit, rather than by cooling during residence in a magma reservoir. In the magma chamber before eruption, probably located at depth of more than 7 km, only cores of the phenocrysts were present and the magma was nearly aphyric (<5 vol% crystals), though the observed rock is highly porphyritic with up to 40 vol% crystals. The Kutsugata magma is inferred to have been rich in dissolved H₂O (>4 wt.%) in the magma chamber, and liquidus temperatures of phenocryst phases were significantly suppressed. Large undercooling caused by decompression and degassing of the magma was the driving force for significant crystallization during ascent because of the increase in liquidus temperature due to vapor exsolution. Low ascent rate of the Kutsugata magma, which is suggested by pahoehoe lava morphology and no association of pyroclastics, gave sufficient time for crystallization. Furthermore, the large degree of superheating of plagioclase in the magma chamber caused plagioclase crystallization with low population density and large crystal size, which characterizes the porphyritic nature of the Kutsugata lava. Alkali basalt is likely to satisfy these conditions and similar phenomena are suggested to occur in other volcanic systems.     

Modeling of the ascent of magma during the plinian eruption of Vesuvius in A.D. 79

The ascent of magma during the A.D. 79 eruption of Vesuvius was studied by a steady-state, one-dimensional, and nonequilibrium two-phase flow model. The gas exsolution process was modeled by assuming a chemical equilibrium between the exsolved and dissolved gas, whereas the magma density and viscosity were modeled by accounting for the crystal content in magma. The exsolution, density, and viscosity models consider the effect of different compositions of the white and gray magmas. By specifying the conduit geometry and magma composition, and employing the model to search for the maximum discharge rate of magma which is consistent with the specified geometry and magma composition, the model was then used to establish the two-phase flow parameters along the conduit. It was found that for all considered conditions the magma pressure in the conduit decreases below the lithostatic pressure near the magma fragmentation level, and that in the deep regions of the conduit the white magma pressure is larger and the gray magma pressure is lower than the lithostatic one. The exsolution and fragmentation levels were found to be deeper for the white than for the gray magma, and the changing composition during the eruption causes an increase of the exit pressure and decrease of the exit gas volumetric fraction. The model also predicted a minimum conduit diameter which is consistent with the white and gray magma compositions and mass flow-rates. The predictions of the model were shown to be consistent with column collapses during the gray eruption phase, large presence of carbonate lithics in the gray pumice fall deposit, and magma-water interaction during a late stage of the eruption.     

The 1669 eruption at Mount Etna: chronology,petrology and geochemistry,with inferences on the magma sources and ascent mechanisms

 Analysis of the petrochemical characters of the 1669 Etnean lavas shows that they can be grouped into two sets: SET1 lavas were erupted from 11 to 20 March and are more primitive in composition than SET2, erupted later until the end of activity. Both sets may be interpreted as the result of crystallization under different conditions of two primary magmas which are compositionally slightly distinct and which fractionate different volumetric proportions of minerals. To explain why more mafic lavas (SET1) were erupted earlier than more acid ones (SET2), we argue that new deeper magma rose up into a reservoir where residing magma was fractionating. Density calculations demonstrate that new magma is less dense and may originate a plume, rapidly rising through the residing magma which is cooler and more volatile-depleted than the new magma. Calculations of uprise velocity assuming laminar flow are consistent with this hypothesis. Received: 20 November 1995 / Accepted: 2 August 1996     

Geoid and topography of Venus in various thermal convection models

Important though indirect information about the internal structure of Venus is provided by its topography and geoid. In the last decades this information has been used to constrain the Venus mantle viscosity structure and its dynamic regime. Recently, the geodynamic inversion of the Venus?? geoid and topography resulted in a group of best fitting viscosity profiles. We use these viscosity models here as an input to our mantle convection code. We carry out simulations of the Venus?? mantle evolution in a 3D spherical shell with depth dependent viscosity and check whether the character of the dynamic topography and the geoid represented by their power spectra fits the observed quantities. We compare the results with several other models obtained for different viscosity stratifications (constant, constant with highly viscous lithosphere, linear increase of viscosity). Further, we estimate the effect of other factors such as internal heating and varying Rayleigh number. We use a 2D spherical axisymmetric convection code to study the effect of lateral viscosity variations. In these 2D models we monitor the topography and the geoid developing above the axisymmetric plume and compare them with the observed elevations of Venus?? geoid and topography in several Regia. Though none of the models fits observed data perfectly, we can generally conclude, that the best fit between the observed and predicted quantities is reached for viscosity profiles with 200 km thick lithosphere followed by a gradual increase of viscosity with depth and with the upper mantle viscosity of 2 × 10 ²¹ Pa s. For all viscosity profiles the predicted geoid and topography spectra match the observed ones only up to the degree 40, thus indicating other than dynamic origin of these quantities for higher degrees.     

Replenishment rates of crustal magma and their bearing on potential sources of thermal energy

A general model of magma intrusion into the crust is developed which is based on a viscous-dissipation, forced-convection flow process driven by gravitational-buoyancy forces. Although some of the points in this general model have been studied before, it is possible with the present model to go further and calculate magma volumetric intrusion rates from fundamental properties and parameters. Equations for forced convection in a conduit with viscous dissipation are combined with results for the temperature dependence of magma viscosity. The volumetric intrusion rate is shown to be not a function of viscosity as might be expected, but rather a function primarily of the rate of change of viscosity with temperature. The model predictions for intrusion rate correlate well with field results for several sites where data exist for both intrusion or extrusion rate and for the temperature-dependent behavior of magma viscosity. The model predicts magma chamber replenishment rates equivalent to thermal energy rates on the order 10 GW (gigawatts) for a single active magma site. Assuming active magma sites on a 50-km spacing along volcanic lineaments leads to an estimate of a renewable magma intrusion rate into the crust of the western U.S. on the order of 2 TW (terawatts).     

数值模拟研究二叠纪峨眉山玄武岩浆在四川盆地的热效应

四川盆地是我国重要的含油气盆地,其西南部位于峨眉山大火成岩省的外带,二叠纪峨眉山玄武岩浆对四川盆地热历史及烃源岩热演化的影响一直备受关注.近年来,盆地古温标结果揭示出盆地在二叠纪存在高古热流（75~85 mW·m^-2）,甚至部分点位存在超高古热流（97~114 mW·m^-2）,被认为和峨眉山玄武岩浆的热效应有关.为了解这些高-超高古热流的成因机制,以及溢流到地表的玄武岩浆对二叠系及以下地层和烃源岩的热影响,本文采用二维有限元方法对二叠纪峨眉山玄武岩浆的热效应进行了模拟,得出如下结论：（1）置于岩石圈底部的地幔柱头高温异常体和挤入地壳底部的高温玄武岩浆在短期内（4 Ma内）对地表热流的扰动分别小于5 mW·m^-2和20 mW·m^-2,均无法解释四川盆地二叠纪的异常古热流.（2）古热流与侵入到地壳内部的岩浆有关,中心在7~17 km深度的不同形态的岩浆都有可能造成高或超高古热流的形成,引起超高古热流的水平状岩浆囊厚度在2~10 km,表层距地表在6~12 km之间.（3）地表岩浆越厚、下伏地层越浅,岩浆对该地层产生的热扰动越大,其中烃源岩所受影响也越大.如,上覆岩浆厚度为300 m时,在深度300 m（二叠系）、800 m（奥陶系）、1250 m（寒武系）、2000 m（震旦系）地层引起的最大升温分别是241℃、77℃、40℃和19℃,所需时间分别为2100年、6100年、1.17万年和2.56万年.（4）相变热的存在对二叠系和奥陶系地层不可忽略,如300 m厚岩浆产生的相变热可以使二叠系地层额外增温达55℃.

     

Effects of Earth's rotation on convection in magma chambers

The rotation of the Earth is predicted to have a strong influence on the convective motions in basaltic magmas which cool at high and intermediate latitudes on the Earth's surface. Convection in layers greater than 100 m deep is characterised by large Taylor numbers and small Rossby numbers, for which laboratory experiments provide evidence of strong rotationally-induced flows. In the case of convection driven by either thermal or compositional buoyancy fluxes from horizontal top or bottom boundaries Coriolis forces induced by the Earth's rotation are expected to cause the turbulent convective motions to form into intense vortices whose axes tend to be close to the vertical. These vortices should be tall and thin, be very unsteady, and have rapid vertical motion in their cores. Earth's rotation is likely to have little or no effects on convection in very shallow convecting layers ( < 100 m) of basaltic magmas or in chambers of more viscous (granitic) magmas. When convection is driven by horizontal density differences (such as those produced by cooling or crystallization at sloping or vertical walls or by simple lateral variation of layer depth) in basaltic chambers of order 10 km or greater in width the rotation of the Earth may cause relatively rapid horizontal (geostrophic) circulation over the lateral scales of the chamber. These predictions involve some extrapolation of fluid dynamical principles from laboratory to magma chamber conditions. Speculative comments on some possible petrological implications are included.     

Modeling of the planetary structure of the ionosphere and the protonosphere coupling

A planetary model of the ionosphere and the protonosphere coupling is described. The system of three-dimensional nonstationary modeling equations of continuity and motion for the ions O⁺ and H⁺ is presented. Some numerical results of model calculations are compared with the experimental data. The important role of electromagnetic drifts in the formation of large-scale morphological peculiarities of the ionosphere and the protonosphere coupling is shown.