Effects of load irregularity on the cyclic behaviour of sand

In an effort to investigate the effects of irregular nature of load application on the behaviour of soils during earthquakes, a series of uni-directional irregular loading tests were performed on saturated Fuji river snad under undrained condition using a simple shear test apparatus. The samples prepared to three different densities in this test device were subjected to twelve irregular time histories of shear stress alteration. For comparison purposes, the conventional type of constant amplitude cyclic simple shear tests were also conducted on samples prepared under identical conditions. On the basis of the test results, values of coefficients allowing for the effect of load irregularity were elucidated for the samples with three different densities. It was then suggested that the values of coefficient thus determined be used to facilitate the evaluation of the soil strength under actual seismic loading conditions, on the basis of the cyclic shear strength obtained from the conventional type of constant-amplitude triaxial tests.     

循环剪切吸水条件下饱和砂土的应力应变规律

在实际土工抗震边值问题中,饱和砂土在许多情况下并非处于完全不排水条件,可能由于土性等因素的不同而出现各异的排渗条件。排水条件对土体的动力应力应变响应有较大影响,本文基于新开发的孔隙水注入控制系统,进行了循环剪切条件下饱和砂土吸水试验,研究了剪切吸水对土体动力特性的影响规律。通过试验发现:剪切吸水条件下砂土的抗液化强度较不排水条件下降低,同样的循环剪切条件下轴向应变发展更大;试样的抗液化强度降低和轴向应变增加程度随剪切吸水率的增大而增加。基于对饱和砂土体变规律的已有研究,本文初步解释了剪切吸水条件下饱和砂土应力应变特性规律的物理实质。     

荷载大小对随机波与定次数波作用下土体变形关系的影响

通过砂土的一系列动三轴实验,研究不规则地震荷载作用下与定次数等幅荷载作用下土体变形间的关系,给出了地震荷载的大小对二者间关系的影响规律。结果表明:真实地震荷载下土的变形发展与等幅正弦荷载明显不同,应变发展时程的形态主要受地震动的形态控制;若采用以20周作为标准作用次数的等幅荷载代替不规则的地震荷载,修正真实地震应力下的残余变形,荷载大小对随机波与定次数波作用下土体变形间关系没有影响。     

Stiffness degradation of natural fine grained soils during cyclic loading

Cyclic behavior of natural fine grained soils under a broad range of strains were investigated considering the effects of plasticity index and changes in confining pressures based on cyclic triaxial tests. A total of 98 stress controlled cyclic triaxial tests were conducted on normally consolidated and slightly overconsolidated samples. The investigation was divided into two parts. The first part consists of stress controlled cyclic triaxial tests under different stress amplitudes that were conducted to estimate the modulus reduction and the thresholds between nonlinear elastic, elasto-plastic and viscoplastic behavior. The second part involves the investigation of the undrained stress–strain behavior of fine grained soils under irregular cyclic loadings. The results showed that the elastic threshold is approximately equal to 90% of G_max. Another transition point was defined as the flow threshold where the value of tangent of shear modulus ratio changes for the second time. Simple empirical relationships to estimate the dynamic shear modulus and damping ratio was formulated and compared with the similar empirical relationships proposed in the literature. The results provide useful guidelines for preliminary estimation of dynamic shear modulus and damping ratio values for fine grained soils based on laboratory tests.     

Evaluation of temperature and freeze–thaw effects on excess pore pressure generation of fine-grained soils

The November 3, 2002 Denali-Alaska earthquake (M_w=7.9) caused significant liquefaction associated damage to various infrastructure built on fine-grained soils. The seismic response, liquefaction potential, and excess pore pressure generation of soils in cold regions, especially those of fine-grained nature, have not been studied thoroughly and therefore are not well-understood. This paper presents results from an extensive laboratory study on the characteristics of excess pore pressure generation and liquefaction potential of fine-grained soils. Laboratory-constituted soils specimens were tested in four categories: (1) tests on specimens subjected to no thermal conditioning or freeze–thaw cycles; (2) tests on specimens conditioned at 24, 5, 1, 0.5, and −0.2 °C; (3) tests on specimens subjected to 1–4 freeze–thaw cycles; and (4) tests on specimens conditioned at near-freezing temperatures of 0.5 and −0.2 °C through different freeze–thaw paths. Strain-controlled, undrained, cyclic triaxial tests were performed at shear strain levels of 0.005–0.8%. Specimens conditioned at different temperatures were found to generate significantly different pore pressures with cyclic loading. The excess pore pressure generation at near or slightly below freezing was found to change dramatically. A transitional change in the dynamic soil behavior, attributed to unfrozen- or frozen-dominant pore water, was discovered. The threshold shear strain was also found to be influenced by the temperature. Subjecting the soil specimens to 1, 2 and 4 freeze–thaw cycles caused a reduction in excess pore pressure generation and slight change in the threshold shear strain. The temperature conditioning path to reach the target temperature was found to be important on the development of excess pore pressure at near and slightly below-freezing temperatures.     

等吸力三轴剪切试验中非饱和黄土强度变形及水量变化特性

通过饱和原状黄土常规三轴试验和非饱和原状黄土等吸力三轴试验研究吸力和净围压对非饱和黄土强度变形的影响,并用HUANG等、胡冉等和方祥位等提出的土水特征曲线模型分析剪切过程中排水规律。研究结果表明：等吸力下原状土样固结剪切体积变形随净围压增大而增大;等净围压下原状土样固结剪切体积变形量随吸力的增大基本呈减小趋势。p-q平面内饱和土CSL线逐渐超过低吸力下非饱和土CSL线,原因在于随着p值增大,相对于非饱和土,饱和土孔隙比越来越小,较小孔隙比对抗剪强度的贡献逐渐大于非饱和土吸力对抗剪强度的贡献。应用固结稳定的数据拟合出HUANG等和胡冉等提出的模型参数,并预测剪切过程中的排水量,发现剪切速率对排水量有影响,这两种模型适用于剪切速率慢,排水充分的情况,而方祥位等提出的模型对不同剪切速率会拟合出不同的参数。     

Dynamic instability of clays: an energy approach

The dynamic instability of any soil is based on the ability to accumulate from cycle to cycle a part of the energy to be dissipated. Using the general thermodynamic approach in combination with high resolution experiments it is possible to analyze the transformations of energy in soil under dynamic loading. Undisturbed specimens of two Norwegian clays, sufficiently different in their engineering properties, were used in a number of undrained cyclic triaxial tests to study the influence of confining stress, coefficient of earth pressure at rest (K₀), dynamic stress amplitude and frequency of loading in the development of instability in the clays. This paper discusses the unit dissipated energy and the unit activation energy as possible energy criteria for evaluation of dynamic instability in soils.     

A semi-empirical formula for evaluating residual strain of soils under earthquake loading

A new semi-empirical formula for evaluating the residual strain of soils under earthquake loading is presented in this paper based on the incremental method and the increment model proposed by the authors. When the incident loading is uniform, the results calculated by the new formula are nearly the same as those by the existing formula. For excitation of the random earthquake loading, the results calculated by the new formula are compared to the results obtained by dynamic triaxial tests. The dynamic triaxial tests had been performed considering different seismic waves, confining stresses,consolidation ratios, and types of cohesive soils. The comparison between the calculated and tested results indicate that the presented formula can efficiently and practically describe the time-dependent process of the soil residual strains under actual seismic loads.     

Evaluation of static and dynamic properties of sand–fines mixtures through the state and equivalent state parameters

The results of an experimental investigation on sands with low plastic fines content are presented. Specimens with a low plastic fines content of 0%, 15%, 30%, 40%, 50% and 60% by weight were tested in drained and undrained triaxial compression tests. The soil specimens were tested under three different categories: (1) at a constant void ratio index; (2) at the same peak deviator stress in a triaxial test; and (3) at a constant relative density. By a combination with our published experimental data in recent years, the critical state line and various state parameters have been proposed and discussed for a further understanding the behavior of sand–fines mixtures. Results indicated that a unique critical line was obtained from drained and undrained triaxial compression tests for each fines content. The effects of fines content on critical state line (CSL) were recognized and discussed. In addition, the results revealed that normalized peak undrained shear stress, cyclic resistance ratio, and compression index were found to be a good correlation with state parameter Ψ as well as equivalent state parameter Ψ*. An increasing state parameter decreased the normalized peak undrained shear stress, and cyclic resistance ratio; however, the compression index increased with an increase in state parameter. Finally, there were no correlations such as the coefficient of consolidation–state parameter and maximum shear modulus–state parameter due to the different testing condition.     

Postcyclic behavior of low-plasticity silt with limited excess pore pressures

This paper investigates the postcyclic behavior of low-plasticity silt with excess pore pressure ratio (R_u) less than 1. The testing specimens were prepared from Mississippi River Valley (MRV) silt. Full and no reconsolidation were allowed after specimens were subjected to various excess pore pressure ratios due to cyclic loading in a cyclic triaxial cell, and then monotonic shear tests were conducted. The effect of the R_u on shear strength and stiffness at small and large deformation was investigated. It was found that a R_u greater than 0.70 is a prerequisite of large increase in volumetric strain and undrained shear strength for specimens with full reconsolidation. In contrast, a significant decrease in yield shear strength and initial stiffness was noted for specimens without reconsolidation. In comparison to published data for sands, the silt experienced significant volumetric strain due to reconsolidation at lower R_u, indicating that the specimen fabric was modified or strained at lower R_u.     

Effect of depositional method on the undrained behavior and microstructure of sand with silt

It has been known for many years that depositional method plays an important part in the results of laboratory testing of clean sands. In this paper, undrained triaxial compression tests were performed on specimens composed of Nevada sand with 20% non-plastic silt content using a variety of depositional methods that include slurry deposition, water sedimentation, air pluviation, mixed dry deposition, and dry funnel deposition. It was found that there was a marked difference in the undrained behavior even though the density and stress conditions were identical. The conclusion was that the soil fabric was responsible for this result. Using the scanning electron microscope, a method was developed to examine and quantify the microstructure of silty sand. These results appear to indicate that there are internal particle structures in sand with silt and their relative quantities correlate with the observed macroscopic undrained behavior.     

Seismic base-isolation mechanism in liquefied sand in terms of energy

Seismic base isolation effect in a liquefied sand layer was investigated based on soil properties measured in a series of undrained cyclic triaxial tests. Transmission of seismic wave in a soil model consisting of a liquefied surface layer and an underlying nonliquefied layer was analyzed in terms of energy, considering liquefaction-induced changes in S-wave velocity and internal damping. It was found that, between two different base-isolation mechanisms, a drastic increase in wave attenuation in the liquefied layer due to shortening wave length gives a greater impact on the base isolation with increasing thickness of the liquefied layer than the change of seismic impedance between the liquefied and nonliquefied layer. Also indicated was that cyclic mobility behavior in dilative clean sand tends to decrease the seismic isolation effect to a certain extent.     

复杂应力条件下松砂振动孔隙水压力与体变特性的试验研究

利用新研制的土工静力-动力液压三轴-扭转多功能剪切仪,在5种初始主应力方向角与5种中主应力系数相组合的初始固结条件下,对饱和松砂进行了不排水循环扭剪试验。讨论了初始固结条件对不排水条件下饱和松砂孔隙水压力变化规律及对剪胀、剪缩、卸荷体缩等体积变化过程的影响。试验研究表明：（1）分别以稳定残余孔隙水压力和破坏时循环次数归一化后的残余孔隙水压力比和循环次数比之间的关系可以用双曲线模式表达。其参数主要依赖于初始主应力方向,中主应力系数对参数的影响并不显著。归一化后的孔隙水压力比与广义剪应变之间的关系也可以用双曲线模式表达,其中的2个待定参数依赖于初始主应力方向,与中主应力系数无关;（2）在三向非均等固结条件下的不排水循环扭剪试验中,饱和松砂表现出卸荷体缩特性,不同初始主应力方向时,饱和松砂剪缩、剪胀、卸荷体缩呈现出不同的交替变化模式。     

Influence of a cyclic and dynamic loading history on dynamic properties of dry sand, part II: cyclic axial preloading

Initial fabric of a soil induced by its cyclic strain history is an important parameter among others like void ratio, state of stress and amplitude concerning the further accumulation of deformations under cyclic loading. It is of high importance to determine methods in order to estimate the initial fabric of the grain skeleton or the cyclic loading history of the soil. An attempt is made in this paper to correlate small strain stiffness of non-cohesive soil with its cyclic loading history. For this purpose several cyclic triaxial tests with specimens subjected to cyclic axial loading were performed and changes of small strain soil properties due to this cyclic loading were studied. All these tests showed only moderate changes of small strain stiffnesses independently of the different boundary conditions. Thus, a correlation between fabric or strain history and small strain stiffnesses seems not to be possible.     

强震作用下不同处理方式黄土地基抗震陷性能评价

由于黄土高原区抗震设防标准长期偏低,无法承受强震带来的严重灾害链后果,因此为了提高地基及公路路基的抗强震能力,以强震动荷载为试验输入条件,以强夯、粉煤灰、水泥土等三种地基改性处理试样为研究对象,对其进行室内动三轴试验,寻找针对震陷性黄土工程场地更加经济、科学的抗震陷地基处理方法,研究不同地基改性处理方法在强震动荷载下的残余应变特性,得到强震作用与残余应变的定量关系,并从变形特征和动载振次两个角度对比三类方法的适用性。在此基础上,估算场地不同地基处理方式下的震陷量,给出强震荷载下不同工程场地有效的抗震陷处理方法与评价办法,为黄土场地抗震设计和地基处理提供参考依据。     

饱和南京细砂孔压增量模型的普适性研究

循环荷载作用下饱和砂土的孔压增长规律是土动力学的核心内容之一。基于笔者在给定相对密度、均等固结条件下饱和南京细砂的不排水等幅循环三轴试验结果建立的孔压增量模型,进一步进行了不同相对密度、不同固结比条件下饱和南京细砂的不排水等幅循环三轴试验,将上述均等固结的孔压增量模型拓展为适用于不同相对密度、均等和非均等固结条件的孔压增量模型。采用拓展后的孔压增量模型对试验结果进行分析的结果表明：通过该孔压增量模型预测验证试验的孔压与验证试验测试的孔压具有较好的一致性,说明该孔压增量模型具有普适性。     

Static and dynamic stiffness measurements with Opalinus Clay

In this work, an experimental study was carried out with the aim of reconciling static and dynamic stiffness of Opalinus Clay. The static and dynamic stiffness of core plugs from a shaly and a sandy facies of Opalinus Clay were characterized at two different stress states. The measurements included undrained quasi-static loading–unloading cycles from which the static stiffness was derived, dynamic stiffness measurement at seismic frequencies (0.5–150 Hz) and ultrasonic velocity measurements (500 kHz) probing the dynamic stiffness at ultrasonic frequencies. The experiments were carried out in a special triaxial low-frequency cell. The obtained results demonstrate that the difference between static and dynamic stiffness is due to both dispersion and non-elastic effects: Both sandy and shaly facies of Opalinus Clay exhibit large dispersion, that is, a large frequency dependence of dynamic stiffness and acoustic velocities. Especially dynamic Young's moduli exhibit very high dispersion; between seismic and ultrasonic frequencies they may change by more than a factor 2. P-wave velocities perpendicular to bedding are by more than 200 m/s higher at ultrasonic frequencies than at seismic frequencies. The static undrained stiffness of both sandy and shaly facies is strongly influenced by non-elastic effects, resulting in significant softening during both loading and unloading with increasing stress amplitude. The zero-stress extrapolated static undrained stiffness, however, reflects the purely elastic response and agrees well with the dynamic stiffness at seismic frequency.     

Behavior of stratified sand–silt–gravel composites under seismic liquefaction conditions

Laboratory seismic liquefaction studies have generally dealt with homogeneous soil conditions only, although stratified soils exist for various soil deposits. The main objective of this research project was to compare the behavior of stratified and homogeneous sand–silt–gravel composites during seismic liquefaction conditions for various silt and gravel contents. An experimental program was undertaken in which a total of eighty stress-controlled undrained cyclic triaxial tests were performed. Two methods of sample preparation were used for each soil type. These methods included moist tamping (representing homogeneous soil conditions) and sedimentation (representing layered soil conditions). The silt contents ranged from 0 to 50%, and soils with 10 and 30% gravel contents were tested. The confining pressure in all test series was 100 kPa. The results indicate that the liquefaction resistances of layered and uniform soils are not significantly different, despite the fact that the soil fabric produced by the two methods of sample preparation is totally different. This finding justifies applying the laboratory tests results to the field conditions for the range of variable studied.     

动荷载作用下粉煤灰改性黄土的震陷特性

针对黄土地区实现工程施工材料本土化和科学利用粉煤灰问题,对不同配比条件下粉煤灰改性黄土进行重塑非饱和试件的动三轴震陷试验,研究其在动荷载作用下的震陷特性,分析粉煤灰掺入量对动变形模量和动残余应变的影响变化规律。研究结果表明:粉煤灰掺入量对黄土震陷性质的影响较大。相同固结应力水平下,动变形模量和动残余应变随粉煤灰掺入量呈现出不同的变化规律,随着粉煤灰掺入量的增加,黄土动变形模量也随之增大,残余应变则减小。动变形模量与动残余应变之间的变化趋势满足幂函数关系;黄土掺加约20%粉煤灰改性后就能够有良好的抗震陷性能。研究成果可为黄土地区地基的抗震防震设计提供借鉴依据,具有重要的工程实用价值。     

Undrained cyclic triaxial behavior of saturated clays under variable confining pressure

A laboratory study on the undrained dynamic behavior of saturated clays in cyclic triaxial tests with a variable confining pressure (VCP tests) is presented. Tests were performed on remolded clayey samples using a dynamic triaxial device where the deviatoric stress and confining pressure can be varied simultaneously. Various cyclic stress paths have been applied on the specimens through varying the ratios or phase differences between the cyclic deviatoric stress and cyclic confining pressure. Specifically, the stress paths used in the present study were designed to simulate the coupling effects of simultaneously varying shear and normal stresses in clays due to earthquakes and other vibration sources. Test results obtained from this study show that the undrained response of saturated clays is strongly influenced by the variation of confining pressure, in terms of pore water pressure, development speed of cyclic strain and magnitude of cyclic strength. It is found that when strong P-waves are propagating in soil layers, VCP tests are more appropriate for the simulation of in situ stress fields than the conventional cyclic triaxial tests with a constant confining pressure (CCP tests).