海洋碳循环与全球气候变化相互反馈的研究进展

海洋作为地球上一个主要吸收二氧化碳的汇,储存大量的二氧化碳.海-气间的二氧化碳交换,使得海洋中碳对气候产生反馈作用,从而影响着大气中CO2的浓度,甚至影响到全球气候的变化.本文主要介绍了海洋碳循环的过程,以及海洋碳循环过程对气候的反馈作用.     

北半球高纬地区年际尺度循环过程中的气-海-冰相互作用关系

基于一个全球气-海-冰耦合模式数值模拟结果,对北半球高纬度地区年际尺度的气-海-冰相互作用进行了分析。在所使用的全球气-海-冰耦合模式中,大气环流模式和陆面过程模式来自国家气候中心,海洋环流模式和海冰模式来自中国科学院大气物理研究所大气科学和地球流体力学数值模拟国家重点实验室。采用一种逐日通量距平耦合方案实现次网格尺度海冰非均匀条件下大气环流模式和海洋环流模式在高纬地区的耦合。只对50 a模拟结果中的后30 a结果进行了分析。在分析中,首先对滤波后的北半球高纬度地区海平面气压、表面大气温度、海表面温度、海冰密集度及海表面感热通量的标准化距平做联合复经验正交函数分解,取第一模进行重建,然后讨论了在一个循环周期(约4 a)中北半球高纬度地区气-海-冰的作用关系。结果表明:(1)当北大西洋涛动处于正位相时,格陵兰海出现南风异常,使表面大气温度升高,海洋失去感热通量减少,海洋表面温度升高,海冰密集度减小;当北大西洋涛动处于负位相时,格陵兰海出现北风异常,使表面大气温度降低,海洋失去感热通量增多,海洋表面温度降低,海冰密集度增加。巴伦支海变化特点与格陵兰海相似,但在时间上并不完全一致。(2)多年平均而言,北冰洋内部靠近极点区域为冷中心。当北冰洋内部为低压异常时,因异常中心偏向太平洋一侧,使北冰洋内部靠近太平洋部分为暖平流异常,靠近大西洋一侧为冷平流异常。伴随着暖、冷平流异常,这两侧分别出现暖异常和冷异常,海表面给大气的感热通量分别偏少和偏多,上述海区海表面温度分别偏高和偏低,海冰密集度分别偏小和偏大。当北冰洋内部为高压异常时特点正好与上述相反。由上述分析结果可知,在海洋、大气年际循环中,大尺度大气环流变率起主导作用,海洋表面温度和海冰密集度变化主要是对大气环流变化的响应。     

太平洋海气CO2通量对气候事件的响应

应用一个嵌套了海洋生物地球化学循环的太平洋环流碳循环模式,分析了1960～2000年太平洋不同海区海气碳通量随时间的变化。模拟结果显示,赤道太平洋为大气CO₂的排放区,南、北太平洋(南、北纬15°至模式计算区域南、北边界)为吸收区。3个海区海气碳通量随时间均存在显著的波动,其中赤道太平洋海气碳通量年际波动最显著。3个海区海气碳通量年际波动对气候事件的响应并不一致,在El Niño年赤道太平洋冷舌的强度和总溶解无机碳(DIC)的浓度以及输出生产力均会受到上升流减弱的影响而降低,La Niña年这些海气碳通量控制要素的分布情况则正好相反,但在南北太平洋副热带以及高纬度海区,El Niño和La Niña对这些要素带来的影响却并不一定相反,对输出生产力的影响甚至是一致的。以海表温度(SST)为例考察海气碳通量与物理场之间的关系表明,在赤道太平洋上升流对DIC的影响是控制海气碳通量变化的主要因素,而在其他海区,尤其是副热带海区,由于垂直运动的年际变化较小,且生物生产力水平较低,SST的波动对海气碳通量年际变化的影响更加重要。     

南海海域海-气耦合模式及其数值模拟试验

在ＮＣＡＲ区域气候模式ＲｅｇＧＭ２和普林斯顿海洋模式ＰＯＭ基础上发展适用于区域海－气相互作用研究的区域海－气耦合模式,模式采用同步耦合、海洋模式将海表温度提供给大气模式,大气模式为海洋模式提供太阳短波辐射、感热能量、潜热通量。海洋与大气模式每１５ｍｉｎ交换一次通量。耦合过程没有使用通量校正。使用该模式对中国南海区域１９９５年５－７月大气和海洋进行了模拟试验,将模拟结果与ＣＯＡＤＳ通量强迫的模拟结果     

关于亚洲夏季风爆发及北半球季节突变的物理机理的诊断分析:Ⅰ季风爆发的阶段性特征

该工作将亚洲季风区作为一个复杂的海-陆-气耦合系统,来深入考察季风区海-气、陆-气相互作用的基本事实和物理过程,探讨它们在决定亚洲季风爆发及北半球行星尺度大气环流的季节突变的物理机理。本文是系列文章的第一篇,着重研究亚洲夏季风爆发的区域性和阶段性特征,以及过渡季节热带、副热带地区海-气、陆-气相互作用的基本事实,初步分析了它们之间的联系。研究表明,热带季风对流于4月底到5月初越过赤道进入北半球,首先出现在孟加拉湾东部-中南半岛西南部地区,然后于5月中旬和6月上旬末分别出现在南海和印度半岛地区,呈阶段性爆发的特征。季风对流在孟加拉湾东部-中南半岛西南部地区爆发阶段,在大气环流变化和对流活动中心位置出现区别于南海季风和印度季风爆发的特征。通过对地表感热通量和海表潜热通量的分析,表明热带海洋上海表感热通量甚小于海表潜热通量,南海季风爆发时期印度洋上海表潜热通量显著增大,印度季风爆发后海表潜热通量的高值中心在孟加拉湾和阿拉伯海上建立起来。印度洋上低层增强的过赤道气流引起的强烈的海-气相互作用导致海表水汽的大量蒸发,并通过其输送作用,为季风对流的爆发提供了充足的水汽来源。过渡季节在副热带地区(沿27.5～37.5°N纬带上), 青藏高原和西太平洋上地(海)表感热通量和潜热通量均有迅速的季节变化性, 但趋势相反。当青藏高原上地表感热通量和潜热通量呈阶段性的显著加大, 西太平洋上海表感热通量和潜热通量迅速减小。这种大陆和海洋对大气加热的显著的季节化的差异, 影响着大气环流的季节转变。     

海浪和海洋飞沫对“珊珊”台风影响的数值研究

台风是剧烈的天气系统,在开放的海上强风激起大浪,改变了海表粗糙度,同时,海浪顶端的白泡沫破碎,在海-气界面处会出现大量的海洋飞沫。基于共享内存的进程间通信技术应用到区域大气和海浪模式的耦合中,大气模式引入了Fairall和Andreas两种海洋飞沫参数化方案,对2006年珊珊台风进行了模拟对比试验,结果表明:耦合模式通过海-气相互作用,对台风的强度产生影响,由于耦合模式在海表粗糙度的计算上考虑了海表状况,使得耦合模式模拟的台风强度更接近实况,而对台风的移动路径影响不大;耦合模式中海-气相互作用主要通过动力因素来对台风产生影响,海表状况影响了海表粗糙度,从而使台风的动量输送发生变化,具体的台风强度增强还是减弱主要取决于海表状况与实况的符合程度;海洋飞沫参数化主要通过热力场的改变来影响动力场,Fairall方案中潜热通量和感热通量得到很大程度的加强,使得台风的热力结构得以改变,台风强度明显加强,从而影响了动力场结构;Andreas方案由于其界面通量算法在高相对湿度条件下计算界面通量时得到的量值较小,虽然高风速条件下感热通量加大,但总的潜热通量、感热通量较Fairall方案为弱,因此,模拟的台风强度不强;海洋飞沫参...     

带生物泵三维全球海洋碳循环模式

建立了一个带生物泵的三维全球海洋碳循环模式,该模式在海气界面上与一个CO2充分混合的大气箱进行CO2交换,模式积分1 200年达到准稳定态的海水总CO2、碱度及溶解氧的浓度、表层新生产力、海气分压差等的分布与实测相接近。通过带生物泵和不带生物泵的对比实验,表明海洋生物过程在海洋吸收大气中CO2能力上起着重要作用。     

西太平洋区域二甲硫醚及其他硫化物的模拟研究

本文利用一维光化学模式，以二甲硫醚(Dimethyl Sulfide，简称DMS) 为源模拟了西太平洋对流层的硫化物循环。DMS海-气通量由“stagnant-film”模式进行计算。尽管海洋大气中OCS浓度比DMS大一个量级，但它对SO2的贡献很小，DMS仍是海洋大气中SO2的主要源。在大气垂直湍流输送过程中，DMS白天与OH反应，夜间与NO3反应被氧化成SO2，SO2大部分通过非均相转化形成H2SO4。模拟结果与PEM-WEST-A观测资料对比，取得了较好的一致性。     

全球二氧化碳循环的一维模式研究

本文用一个全球碳循环的一维模式重建了1860年以来的大气二氧化碳浓度。结果表明:(1) 模拟结果与冒纳罗亚（Mauna Loa）的观测结果之间存在极好的一致性；(2) 海洋虽然是人类活动释放的CO2的最重要的汇，但其作为碳汇的能力受到海洋缓冲效应的限制。海洋吸收CO2的速率还与某些响应过程密切相关；(3) 在全球碳循环中，生态系统的作用是双重的:人类活动对它的破坏使它成为CO2的源，而其对过量CO2的响应又使其成为CO2的一个汇。工业革命以来，人类对生态系统的破坏与其自身的恢复大致是同量级的；(4) 陆地生物圈缩短了整个碳循环系统对人为扰动的响应时间。     

一个简单的热带海-气耦合系统中短期气候振荡的数值试验

用一个包括了湍流热交换、凝结、蒸发、辐射冷却、云量对辐射调节及海水上翻等各种物理过程在内的简单海-气耦合模式,进行了长期的数值积分。结果表明,热带海温异常通过热力过程影响大气的垂直环流,这种效应首先是局地的,以后这种影响会扩展到中纬度,而反过来,大气又对海洋产生动力影响,使海温发生变化。在只考虑上层海洋的情况下,试验表明在这一耦合系统中,存在着短期气候振荡,并且在赤道中太平洋和赤道东太平洋之间大尺度海表温度异常存在着落后相关。     

二维的大气CO2——大西洋碳循环模式

本文描述了一个二维（纬度×深度）的大西洋碳循环模式，模拟了大气和海洋间CO2的交换以及碳在海洋中的输送过程。模式在运行时使用了一个12层的三维动力学模拟的海洋环流的结果。大西洋被划分成397个网格箱，每个箱子中各种形式的碳的含量、总碱度、溶解的无机营养物和溶解氧的浓度以及几种14C(碳14)同位素的值分别得到求解。模式稳定状态的计算采用解大型稀疏线性方程组的直接解法。计算结果与“地球化学的海洋研究（GEOSECS）”的实际观测数据对比，表明模式较好地再现了实际大西洋中几种化学量的分布。     

海洋碳循环模式（I）——一个包括海洋动力学环流、化学过程和生物过程的二维碳模式的建立

利用一个全球海洋动力学环流模式所模拟的海洋环流场,建立了一个全面的二维海洋碳循环模式。此模式摒弃了传统箱模式的缺陷,充分考虑了诸如大气与海洋间的碳交换、光合作用和氧化分解、碳酸钙的产生和溶解、悬浮颗粒物的下沉等过程,尤其是在模式中耦合进了以往甚少考虑的海洋生物过程对碳循环的影响,引入了详尽合理的参数化方案。通过模拟发现：在稳定状态下,大气和海洋中总碳含量分布依赖于发生在海洋中的各种物理化学过程及边界条件,水平扩散系数和光合作用常数率对各化学量的分布有很大影响。     

弱光层异养过程对海洋储碳的影响:进展、挑战和展望

海洋是地表系统最大的碳库和重要碳汇区。海洋生物泵通过一系列复杂的生物地球化学过程将CO₂转化成颗粒有机碳（Particulate Organic Carbon,POC）并输送到深海,是海洋储碳的重要途径。弱光层（真光层底部到1 000 m）的生物异养过程消耗了超过70%从真光层输出的POC通量,决定了生物泵的储碳效率,因此准确定量弱光层的再矿化速率对评估海洋碳汇有重要意义。本文针对海洋生物泵储碳问题,聚焦弱光层异养过程对海洋储碳的影响机制,对全球弱光层再矿化定量工作进行评述,综合分析弱光层POC的衰减、再矿化等问题,并展望了相关新技术的应用。     

A global ocean biogeochemistry general circulation model and its simulations

An ocean biogeochemistry model was developed and incorporated into a global ocean general circulation model (LICOM) to form an ocean biogeochemistry general circulation model (OBGCM). The model was used to study the natural carbon cycle and the uptake and storage of anthropogenic CO2 in the ocean. A global export production of 12.5 Pg C yr-1 was obtained. The model estimated that in the pre-industrial era the global equatorial region within 15o of the equator released 0.97 Pg C yr-1 to the atmosphere, which was balanced by the gain of CO2 in other regions. The post-industrial air-sea CO2 flux indicated the oceanic uptake of CO2 emitted by human activities. An increase of 20－50 mol kg-1 for surface dissolved inorganic carbon (DIC) concentrations in the 1990s relative to pre-industrial times was obtained in the simulation, which was consistent with data-based estimates. The model generated a total anthropogenic carbon inventory of 105 Pg C as of 1994, which was within the range of estimates by other researchers. Various transports of both natural and anthropogenic DIC as well as labile dissolved organic carbon (LDOC) were estimated from the simulation. It was realized that the Southern Ocean and the high-latitude region of the North Pacific are important export regions where accumulative air-sea CO2 fluxes are larger than the DIC inventory, whereas the subtropical regions are acceptance regions. The interhemispheric transport of total natural carbon (DIC+LDOC) was found to be northward (0.11 Pg C yr-1), which was just balanced by the gain of carbon from the atmosphere in the Southern Hemisphere.     

Global and regional ocean carbon uptake and climate change: sensitivity to a substantial mitigation scenario

Under future scenarios of business-as-usual emissions, the ocean storage of anthropogenic carbon is anticipated to decrease because of ocean chemistry constraints and positive feedbacks in the carbon-climate dynamics, whereas it is still unknown how the oceanic carbon cycle will respond to more substantial mitigation scenarios. To evaluate the natural system response to prescribed atmospheric ??target?? concentrations and assess the response of the ocean carbon pool to these values, 2 centennial projection simulations have been performed with an Earth System Model that includes a fully coupled carbon cycle, forced in one case with a mitigation scenario and the other with the SRES A1B scenario. End of century ocean uptake with the mitigation scenario is projected to return to the same magnitude of carbon fluxes as simulated in 1960 in the Pacific Ocean and to lower values in the Atlantic. With A1B, the major ocean basins are instead projected to decrease the capacity for carbon uptake globally as found with simpler carbon cycle models, while at the regional level the response is contrasting. The model indicates that the equatorial Pacific may increase the carbon uptake rates in both scenarios, owing to enhancement of the biological carbon pump evidenced by an increase in Net Community Production (NCP) following changes in the subsurface equatorial circulation and enhanced iron availability from extratropical regions. NCP is a proxy of the bulk organic carbon made available to the higher trophic levels and potentially exportable from the surface layers. The model results indicate that, besides the localized increase in the equatorial Pacific, the NCP of lower trophic levels in the northern Pacific and Atlantic oceans is projected to be halved with respect to the current climate under a substantial mitigation scenario at the end of the twenty-first century. It is thus suggested that changes due to cumulative carbon emissions up to present and the projected concentration pathways of aerosol in the next decades control the evolution of surface ocean biogeochemistry in the second half of this century more than the specific pathways of atmospheric CO₂ concentrations.     

海洋对人为CO2吸收的三维模式研究

文中用包含海洋化学过程和一个简单生物过程的三维碳循环模式模拟了海洋对大气CO2 的吸收 ,并分析了碳吸收的纬度分布。模拟工业革命以来海洋对大气 CO2 的吸收表明 :海洋碳吸收再加上大气 CO2 的增加只占由化石燃料燃烧、森林砍伐和土地利用的变化而释放到大气中的 CO2 的 2 /3。1 980～ 1 989年期间海洋年平均吸收 2 .0 5Gt C。海洋人为 CO2 的吸收有明显的纬度特征。模式计算的海洋 CO2 的吸收在总量与纬度分布上与观测结果比较相符。     

Transport and storage of CO2 in the ocean ——an inorganic ocean-circulation carbon cycle model

Inorganic carbon in the ocean is modelled as a passive tracer advected by a three-dimensional current field computed from a dynamical global ocean circulation model. The carbon exchange between the ocean and atmosphere is determined directly from the (temperature-dependent) chemical interaction rates in the mixed layer, using a standard CO₂ flux relation at the air-sea interface. The carbon cycle is closed by coupling the ocean to a one-layer, horizontally diffusive atmosphere. Biological sources and sinks are not included. In this form the ocean carbon model contains essentially no free tuning parameters. The model may be regarded as a reference for interpreting numerical experiments with extended versions of the model including biological processes in the ocean (Bacastow R and Maier-Reimer E in prep.) and on land (Esser G et al in prep.). Qualitatively, the model reproduces the principal features of the observed CO₂ distribution bution in the surface ocean. However, the amplitudes of surface pCO₂ are underestimated in upwelling regions by a factor of the order of 1.5 due to the missing biological pump. The model without biota may, nevertheless, be applied to compute the storage capacity of the ocean to first order for anthropogenic CO₂ emissions. In the linear regime, the response of the model may be represented by an impulse response function which can be approximated by a superposition of exponentials with different amplitudes and time constants. This provides a simple reference for comparison with box models. The largest-amplitude (0.35) exponential has a time constant of 300 years. The effective storage capacity of the oceans is strongly dependent on the time history of the anthropogenic input, as found also in earlier box model studies.     

A two-dimensional zonally averaged ocean carbon cycle model

An ocean carbon cycle model driven by a constant flow field produced by a two-dimensional thermohaline circu-lation model is developed. Assuming that the biogenic carbon in the oceans is in a dynamic equilibrium, the inorganic carbon cycle is investigated. Before the oceanic uptake of CO2 is carried out, the investigation of 14C distributions in the oceans, including natural and bomb-produced 14C, is conducted by using different values of the exchange coefficient of CO2 for different flow fields (different vertical diffusivities) to test the performance of the model. The suitable values of the exchange coefficient and vertical diffusivities are chosen for the carbon cycle model. Under the forcing of given preindustrial atmospheric CO2 concentration of 280 ppmv, the carbon cycle model is integrated for seven thousand years to reach a steady state. For the human perturbation, two methods including the prescribed at-mospheric pCO2 and prescribed industrial emissions are used in this work. The results from the prescribed atmospher-ic pCO2 show that the oceans take up 36% of carbon dioxide released by human activities for the period of 1980-1989, while the results from the prescribed industrial emission rates show that the oceans take up 34% of car-bon dioxide emitted by industrial sources for the same period. By using the simple method of subtracting industrial emission rate from the total atmosphere+ocean accumulating rate, it can be deduced that before industrial revolution a non-industrial source exists, while after 1940 an extra sink is needed, and that a total non-industrial source of 45 GtC is obtained for the period of 1790-1990.     

海洋对人为CO2吸收的三维模式研究

文中用包含海洋化学过程和一个简单生物过程的三维碳循环模式模拟了海洋对大气CO₂的吸收,并分析了碳吸收的纬度分布。模拟工业革命以来海洋对大气CO₂的吸收表明:海洋碳吸收再加上大气CO₂的增加只占由化石燃料燃烧、森林砍伐和土地利用的变化而释放到大气中的CO₂的2/3。1980～1989年期间海洋年平均吸收2.05GtC。海洋人为CO₂的吸收有明显的纬度特征。模式计算的海洋CO₂的吸收在总量与纬度分布上与观测结果比较相符。     

A SIMULATION OF CO2 UPTAKE IN A THREE DIMENSIONAL OCEAN CARBON CYCLE MODEL*

A three-dimensional ocean carbon cycle model which is a general circulation model coupled with simple biogeochemical processes is used to simulate CO₂ uptake by the ocean.The OGCM used is a modified version of the Geophysical Fluid Dynamics Laboratory modular ocean model(MOM2).The ocean chemistry and a simple ocean biota model are included.Principal variablesare total CO₂,alkalinity and phosphate.The vertical profile of POC flux observed by sediment traps is adopted,the rain ratio,a ratio of production rate of calcite against that of POC,and the bio-production efficiency should be 0.06 and 2 per year,separately.The uptake of anthropogenic CO₂ by the ocean is studied.Calculated oceanic uptake of anthropogenic CO₂ during the 1980s is 2.05×10¹⁵g(Pg)per year.The regional distributions of global oceanic CO₂ are discussed.