Real-world emissions of gasoline passenger cars in Macao and their correlation with driving conditions

Using a portable emissions measurement system, 16 gasoline passenger cars were tested on a fixed route consisting of different types of roads in Macao and the data were normalized with the vehicle-specific power bin method. The normalized HC, CO and NO _X emission levels of the seven passenger car samples with model year older than 2000 were 3.19 ± 5.04, 14.59 ± 22.88, 2.57 ± 2.12 g/km, respectively. The HC, CO and NO _X emission levels of other newer samples were 0.02 ± 0.02, 0.23 ± 0.29 and 0.10 ± 0.13 g/km, respectively. The scrappage of old passenger cars in Macao should be a high priority to control the total emissions of motor vehicles. Based on relative emission levels, a clear and similar pattern for gaseous pollutants and fuel consumption with driving conditions was identified. The emissions of HC, CO and NO _X are best fitted to average speed with inverse functions. Fuel consumption is best fitted to average speed with a power function. Compared to the average driving conditions, the emission factors of HC, CO and NO _X and fuel consumption of gasoline passenger cars during the rush hours on the Macau Peninsula will be increased by 61, 55, 45 and 90 %, respectively. This situation will deteriorate by 2015 if no further transportation management strategies are implemented in Macao. To save energy and mitigate the air pollutant emissions in the urban area, improved traffic planning and travel demand management are also necessary.     

A vision for Iran’s fuel cell and hydrogen development

Hydrogen combined with fuel cell (FC) technology has been widely discussed as a long-term fuel option to address environmental and energy security concerns. Iran, despite outlining a long-term plan to develop its renewable energies’ (REs) infrastructures, is faced with difficulties in deploying fuel cell hydrogen (FCH). These obstacles—led by lack of adequate funding—have caused a slowdown in the government-driven initiatives in recent years, thus resulting in projects delays and suspensions. This paper focuses on current status of Iran’s FCH within and among leading and neighboring countries. Barriers and challenges of the three main actors (government, university, and industry) on Iran’s FCH development are analyzed and then supported with a policy perspective. It is shown that the government obligations play a significant role to overcome these obstacles and also act as the main driving force to perform the required actions. The paper also proposes strategic measures in a short-, medium-, and long-term framework to promote the technology in Iran in hopes of a clear national policy and a proper vision. It is shown that the responsibility for the short- and medium-term actions lies predominantly upon the government while it will be fully devolved to the private sector in the long term.     

Iran’s energy policy: Current dilemmas and perspective for a sustainable energy policy

Iran is facing large challenges in the area of energy policy. In order to illuminate these challenges and the problems and possibilities, which are present, firstly, the current energy consumption patterns have been analyzed in Iran as well as the energy policy of the Iranian government. Based on this analysis, the alternative concepts have been then formulated for Iran’s future energy. The increase in energy usage in Iran is distinctly out of proportion with the development of economic productivity. Negative structural characteristics of this system are: first, an above average energy intensity; second, an increase in energy consumption in the traffic sector; third, a high growth rate in usage of electric energy; and lastly, an above-average amount of stress to the environment. Traditionally, Iran’s energy policy has focused on satisfying the growing demand for energy by oil and, in the last fifteen years, by successively expanding natural gas. However, the further development of the natural gas supply only makes sense within the context of a holistic energy policy, which takes into account the principles of sustainable development. In the short term, such a policy would take advantage of both considerable energy saving techniques, as well as potential renewable energy sources. In the long term, such a policy would strive for the complete transfer to renewable energy sources and technology.     

Determining proper strategies for Iran’s dimensional stone mines: a SWOT–AHP analysis

Iran has very high potential for production and export of dimension stone (rock quarried to size and shape specifications); nevertheless, in spite of growing mine production during the past decade, in many instances this potential has been overlooked. Construction, decorative, and facing stones of Iran are among the highest-quality products in the world. In this paper, Iran’s dimensional stone mines are analyzed using strengths, weaknesses, opportunities and threats (SWOT) analysis in combination with analytic hierarchy process (AHP). SWOT analysis is a tool commonly used for analyzing both the internal and external environments in order to attain a systematic approach and support for a decision situation. Conventionally, SWOT analysis is qualitative and does not quantify the effect of the factors. Consequently, it is not effective in priority setting. To overcome this limitation, SWOT analysis has been used in combination with other quantitative multi-criteria decision making methods especially the AHP. In this study, first an environment analysis was performed by an expert team familiar with these mines. In this way, the SWOT factors were identified and the subfactors which had very significant effects on the success of these mines were determined. Using the SWOT subfactors, the SWOT matrix and alternative strategies based on these subfactors were developed. Subsequently, the strategies were prioritized and the best strategies for Iran’s dimensional stone mines were determined.     

Analysis of 100% renewable energy for Iran in 2030: integrating solar PV,wind energy and storage

The devastating effects of fossil fuels on the environment, limited natural sources and increasing demand for energy across the world make renewable energy sources more important than in the past. The 2015 United Nations Climate Change Conference resulted in a global agreement on net zero CO₂ emissions shortly after the middle of the twenty-first century, which will lead to a collapse of fossil fuel demand. The focus of the study is to define a cost optimal 100% renewable energy system in Iran by 2030 using an hourly resolution model. The optimal sets of renewable energy technologies, least-cost energy supply, mix of capacities and operation modes were calculated and the role of storage technologies was examined. Two scenarios have been evaluated in this study: a country-wide scenario and an integrated scenario. In the country-wide scenario, renewable energy generation and energy storage technologies cover the country’s power sector electricity demand. In the integrated scenario, the renewable energy generated was able to fulfil both the electricity demand of the power sector and the substantial electricity demand for water desalination and synthesis of industrial gas. By adding sector integration, the total levelized cost of electricity decreased from 45.3 to 40.3 €/MWh. The levelized cost of electricity of 40.3 €/MWh in the integrated scenario is quite cost-effective and beneficial in comparison with other low-carbon but high-cost alternatives such as carbon capture and storage and nuclear energy. A 100% renewable energy system for Iran is found to be a real policy option.     

Sustainable transport indicators: Definition and integration

In this paper, a different interpretation of sustainable transportation, is introduced, in which sustainability with respect to transportation sector for the selected countries is evaluated. This interpretation characterizes “sustainable development” through “harmonic development”. It means sustainable development with special focus on transportation can be measured by the degree of conformity between environment, economy, and social aspects on one hand, and transportation on the other hand. The best indicator to perform such a measurement is elasticity. The database used for the study encompasses a series of national indicators for each country Seventy nine countries were initially selected for detailed analysis for the period of 1980–1995. The data have been extracted from centralized information sources of international agencies. The key dimensions of sustainable development i.e. social, environmental, and economic characteristics are used. Firstly, a set of sustainable transportation indicators is introduced. These indicators, which in fact are elasticities, show the relative change of non-transportation variables with respect to transportation ones. Second composite indices of three non-transportation groups with respect to four transportation modes are calculated. The composite indices are then aggregated by the Concordance Analysis Technique to achieve comprehensive transportation sustainability indices of countries, and according to these values, the countries are compared, ranked, and classified. Mathematical and statistical analyses of the database support the study quantitatively. The results for the selected indicators and countries show that from sustainable transportation point of view and based on the above-mentioned interpretation of sustainable development, United States is in the ranked first, and Sierra Leon is last among the subset of 79 countries with non-missing data. The results of the study depict an overall scheme for comparative assessment of transportation sustainability of the countries.     

Dynamic changes in the energy–carbon performance of Chinese transportation sector: a meta-frontier non-radial directional distance function approach

The transportation sector is the main energy consumer and carbon emitter in China. To accurately evaluate the dynamic changes in the energy–carbon performance of the sector and to propose alternatives for sustainable development, this paper proposes an approach incorporating the meta-frontier method, global benchmark technology, and non-radial directional distance function. Using this approach, the paper proposes a new definition, named the global meta-frontier non-radial Malmquist energy–carbon performance index (GMNMECPI). GMNMECPI can be decomposed into technical efficiency change (EC), best-practice gap change (BPC), and technology gap change (TGC). This new method was then used to estimate the dynamic changes of energy–carbon performance in China’s transportation sector from 2006 to 2015. The paper also identifies the effect of current policies. The empirical results show that the energy–carbon performance of China’s transportation sector decreased annually by 1.636% during the study period. This reduction was mainly caused by a significant technology lag in the central area while primarily influenced by deterioration in efficiency in both the east and west. There is a distinct heterogeneity in technology across China’s three areas. Based on the findings, the paper closes with policy implications.     

Impact of a Jet A-1/HEFA blend on the performance and emission characteristics of a miniature turbojet engine

It is forecast that in the future, alternative fuels derived from non-petroleum sources will become the basic propellant for turbine aircraft engines. Currently, five types of aviation turbine fuel containing synthesized hydrocarbons are certified and accepted, and allow adding a maximum of 50% of synthetic component to conventional fuel. The experimental performance and the emission characteristics of a turbojet engine were investigated in this paper. The studies were conducted with the use of a miniature turbojet engine, which is the main component of a laboratory test rig. The test rig is an interesting solution for engine research, due to the fact that studies concerning full-scale aircraft engines are very complex and expensive. The literature of the subject contains many papers using small-scale turbojet engines for testing alternative fuels. However, most of them concern components of fuels, e.g. biodiesel, butanol, which do not have direct application in aviation. Two different fuel samples, a conventional Jet A-1 fuel and a blend of 48% synthesized paraffinic kerosene from hydroprocessed esters and fatty acids process with Jet A-1 were tested. This process is one of the routes of producing alternative fuel for aviation, approved by ASTM standard. The test rig studies were performed according to a specific profile of engine test, which models different modes of a turbojet engine’s operation. The obtained results are compared in relation to the results for neat Jet A-1 fuel and then discussed.     

Ranking of productivity improvement strategies in Iran mineral sector based on integrated SWOT-FAHP-FTOPSIS analysis

The Iran’s mineral sector, as a major supplier of mineral industries, plays a central role on Iran economy. Promoting the productivity in this area leads to the enhancement of the business environment. Also, it can influence the production chain and minerals value added. In this study, a comprehensive study was conducted on the major barriers/drivers factors affecting the efficiency in the mining sector. Furthermore, 16 key factors were identified using the expert views. These parameters are divided into four main categories: strengths, weaknesses, opportunities, and threats. In addition, a hierarchy model was designed in which the mentioned four efficient strategic parameters were implemented and the SWOT analysis was applied, as well as the nine macro strategies were determined. In order to prioritize these strategies, multiple steps were carried out. First, the subfactors were weighted by implementing the fuzzy multi attribute decision-making technique by combining the experts’ views and triangular fuzzy numbers. Subsequently, the strategies were prioritized by employing the group Fuzzy Technique for Order Preference by Similarity to Ideal Solution (TOPSIS) model. The sensitive analysis of the results presents some minor changes in score of the alternatives, but no alteration was affected in the prioritized strategies. The results revealed the importance of resource allocation strategies related to the existing investments as well as supporting and facilitating the new technology in the mining sector.     

Performance analysis of Diesel engines fueled by biodiesel blends via thermodynamic simulation of an air-standard Diesel cycle

Because of environmental problems, it becomes necessary to develop alternative fuels that give engine performance at par with diesel. Among the alternative fuels, biodiesel and its blends hold good promises as an eco-friendly and the most promising alternative fuel for Diesel engine. The properties of biodiesel and its blends are found similar to that of diesel. Many researchers have experimentally evaluated the performance characteristics of conventional Diesel engines fueled by biodiesel and its blends. However, experiments require enormous effort, money and time. Hence, via finite-time thermodynamics simulation, an air-standard Diesel cycle model with heat transfer loss and variable specific heats of working fluid is analyzed to predict the performance of Diesel engine. The effect of compression ratio, cut-off ratio and fuel type on output work and thermal efficiency is investigated through the model. The fuels considered for the analysis are conventional diesel, rapeseed oil biodiesel and its blend (20 % biodiesel and 80 % diesel by volume). Numerical simulations showed that the output work and thermal efficiency of the engine decrease with increase of cut-off ratio for all fuels. Also, the model predicts similar performance with diesel and biodiesel blend which means that the biodiesel blend (20 % biodiesel and 80 % diesel by volume) could be a good alternative and eco-friendly fuel for conventional Diesel engines without any need to modify the engine.     

A methodology to assess the spatial configuration of urban systems in Iran from an interaction perspective

The aim of this paper is to develop a methodology for identifying various dimensions of the spatial configuration of urban systems in Iran from an interaction perspective. Through the provision of empirical evidence of different types of flows of people including air passenger flows, passenger flows by bus and car, this paper compares the resulting spatial constellations of these flows through the innovative use of indices to systematically describe and measure five dimensions of an urban system’s spatial configuration that include: (1) centrality and dominance of vertices, (2) network cohesion, (3) network strength, (4) network symmetry, and (5) communities and levels. The findings show that although the spatial configurations of different flows are not the same, all were characterized by having a significant distance within a polycentric urban system due to the primacy of the Tehran metropolis. In regard to passenger flows by car and bus, it was found that for various functional regions, there was a balanced distribution of centrality and urban hierarchy evident in Iran. By contrast, air passenger flows were not able to determine centrality within a national urban hierarchy because of the limited distribution of centers for air travel in Iran at higher levels of spatial organization.     

Incorporating the transport sector into carbon emission trading scheme: an overview and outlook

The transport sector is a major consumer of fossil fuels and, consequently, one of the largest sources of greenhouse gas emissions and air pollutant emissions. In recent years, global transport’s emissions have experienced a remarkable increase and will become a crucial cause of global warming in the next few decades. The public has become well aware of the issues regarding carbon emissions in this sector, and reducing greenhouse gases has also become a regulatory agenda of governments around the globe. Emissions trading schemes are considered one of the most cost-efficient ways of controlling greenhouse gas emissions and have been implemented by many countries around the world. While several countries have already incorporated the transport sector into their emissions trading schemes, China is in the process of incorporating a part of the transport sector into its emission trading scheme pilots. Introducing a market mechanism to reduce carbon emissions in the transport sector is still at a nascent stage and much is still to be explored. This paper explores the current development and challenges of applying carbon trading mechanisms in the transport sector around the world. Then, the paper analyzes the policies and current developments of incorporating the transport sector in China’s carbon trading pilots. Several suggestions are then provided in regard to options on transport sector entities coverage, initial allowance allocation models, integration of carbon trading policies with existing policies, collection of transportation statistics and rolling out a nationwide carbon trading system.     

Quantitative evaluation of the sustainability or unsustainability of municipal solid waste options in Tabriz,Iran

Iran has been seeking to develop fully functional waste management strategies to address the problem of its rapidly growing cities. This requires proper evaluation to determine the most appropriate strategies to meet the goals of sustainable waste management. Environmental Impact Assessment is capable of contributing towards this goal. However, such assessments tend to involve a qualitative approach in the evaluation of the sustainability or unsustainability of potential options. Therefore, a suitable quantitative approach to evaluate sustainability/unsustainability is necessary. The paper applies a mathematical model to evaluate the sustainability of unmitigated options for a municipal solid waste disposal site in Tabriz, Iran. This was based upon rapid impact assessment matrix evaluation of the options. The model’s application determines whether the options are sustainable or unsustainable. The model application results indicate that all of the options were considered as unsustainable in an unmitigated state. The results for Tabriz were then compared and contrasted with results obtained by the authors for another MSW disposal site near Tehran. Based on this, there are questions as to the potential value of current waste management strategies. The paper concludes by stating that economic costs are the largest single barrier to achieving sustainable waste management. Furthermore, it is important to develop solutions which disposes and manages waste in a manner conducive to the long-term sustainability of the environment–human relationship.     

Implementation of green productivity management in airline industry

Compilation and implementation of green productivity mechanism in each governmental and nongovernmental organization has several environmental, social and economic achievements.In this paper for management of green productivity in Iran Aseman Airline Company current situation are analyzed such as the consumption of energy, water, airplanes fuel and evaluating environmental pollutants. At the end of this study some applicable techniques for increasing the productivity and consideration of environmental aspects in this company are recommended. Maximum water consumption had been 7500 m3 in the year 2005 during August until September, the maximum of electricity consumption was 759300 kWh in the year 2004 during July until August, the maximum of natural gas consumption had been 83647 m³ in the year 2004 during Feb until March, Also averages of 661500 L of fuel were consumed in this company’s vehicles yearly and in the last nine month of the year 2005, amount of 60263155 liters of airplane fuel has been consumed.     

Assessment of agricultural groundwater users in Iran: a cultural environmental bias

Many environmental problems are rooted in human behavior. This study aimed to explore the causal effect of cultural environmental bias on ‘sustainable behavior’ among agricultural groundwater users in Fars province, Iran, according to Klockner’s comprehensive model. A survey-based research project was conducted to gathering data on the paradigm of environmental psychology. The sample included agricultural groundwater users (n = 296) who were selected at random within a structured sampling regime involving study areas that represent three (higher, medium and lower) bounds of the agricultural-groundwater-vulnerability spectrum. Results showed that the “environment as ductile (EnAD)” variable was a strong determinant of sustainable behavior as it related to groundwater use, and that EnAE had the highest causal effect on the behavior of agricultural groundwater users. The adjusted model explained 41% variance of “groundwater sustainable behavior”. Based on the results, the groundwater sustainable behaviors of agricultural groundwater users were found to be affected by personal and subjective norm variables and that they are influenced by casual effects of the “environment as ductile (EnAD)” variable. The conclusions reflect the Fars agricultural groundwater users’ attitude or worldview on groundwater as an unrecoverable resource; thus, it is necessary that scientific disciplines like hydrogeology and psycho-sociology be considered together in a comprehensive approach for every groundwater study.     

Performance and environmental impact of a turbojet engine fueled by blends of biodiesels

Depletion of conventional fuels, concerns about environmental pollution and the tightening of exhaust emission legislations are the main reasons for increasing research on alternative fuels produced from agricultural feedstock. In this study, biodiesel fuels produced from cotton and corn vegetable oils are investigated as renewable fuels for a gas turbine engine for aviation. The biodiesel fuels are defined as cotton methyl ester (CTME) and corn methyl ester. The performance characteristics and exhaust emissions of the gas turbine engine are investigated when the engine fueled with three blends of 10%(B10), 20%(B20) and 50%(B50) of biodiesel/JetA-1 by volume. The biodiesel fuels were produced using transesterification process and characterized according to ASTM biodiesel specifications. Chemical and physical properties show a real potential of using biodiesel blends as an alternative for JetA-1. The measured engine performance parameters and exhaust emissions are compared with that of pure JetA-1 over a range of throttle setting. The gas turbine engine used in this study is equipped with pressure, flow, temperature, thrust and speed sensors that connected to data acquisition system and control unit in addition to exhaust gas analyzer. The experimental results show that biodiesel fuels can be used up to blend of 50% with JetA-1 in gas turbine engines with slight enhancement in engine performance and significant improvements in exhaust emissions. The engine static thrust is increased with 2% for B50 at lower and medium engine speeds and decreased with 11% at high engine speed compared to conventional JetA-1 fuel. The thrust-specific fuel consumption for biodiesel blends is lower than that for regular JetA-1 fuel. The gas turbine engine efficiency is increased for biodiesel blends by 14% compared to JetA-1, and this is reported for CTME B50. For oxygen concentration in exhaust gases emissions, the higher the biodiesel blend, the higher the O₂ concentration in the exhaust compared with JetA-1 fuel. The O₂ level increased by 6% for biodiesel blend of B50 compared to JetA-1 fuel. The emissions of CO and HC emissions decreased by 5 and 37%, respectively, compared with conventional JetA-1. Additionally, the biodiesel blends achieve a higher CO₂ and NO_x emissions with 11 and 27%, respectively, compared to JetA-1. The sulfur dioxide SO₂ decreased by 75% compared to the regular JetA-1 fuel.     

Storage dam’s locality placing by MCDM techniques (case study: three dams in Iran)

MCDM (multi-criteria decision making) techniques are used to choose the best alternative among the relevant ones and rank the others. In this research, MCDM techniques were used to choose and rank the best places for constructing storage dams in Iran. To achieve this goal, the relevant information and data about dam construction situations were collected. Then, the recommended places for constructing storage dams were ranked by using MCDM techniques and according to the most suitable criteria which have been chosen based on experts’ opinions. To rank dam constructing project, three MCDM techniques, i.e., TOPSIS, AHP, and DEMATEL, were used. The results showed that the application of MCDM models by putting emphasis on economic, social, political, and technical criteria enables government and watershed managers to choose the best alternative(s) for constructing a storage dam.     

Renewable energy in Iran: Challenges and opportunities for sustainable development

Around the globe, developing countries have reported different cases of successfully implemented Renewable Energy (RE) program supported by bilateral or multilateral funding. In developing countries subsidy has played a big role in RE program marketing and whether this will lead to sustainable development is yet to be determined. The adoption of implementation strategies that will support sustainable development and overcoming barriers that hinder expansion of Renewable Energy Technologies (RETs) still remains as a big challenge to stakeholders involved in promotion of RE resources in developing countries. In this respect, developing countries need to re-examine their environmental policy for promotion of RETs in order to define its role in revitalization of their economies. This paper reviews the policy incentives for promotion of RETs in the Islamic Republic of Iran. Setting-up international collaborative business ventures between local industry in Iran and RE companies in developed countries is proposed as an implementation strategy that will appropriate diffusion of RETs in the country. An organizational framework that may help to attain this objective is discussed and a structural model for RE business partnership is presented. It is concluded that with appropriate policy formulations and strategies, RETs can bring about the required socio-economic development in Iran.     

Sources of variation in δC of fossil fuel emissions in Salt Lake City,USA

The isotopic composition of fossil fuels is an important component of many studies of C sources and sinks based on atmospheric measurements of CO₂. In C budget studies, the isotopic composition of crude petroleum and CH₄ are often used as a proxy for the isotopic composition of CO₂ emissions from combustion. In this study, the C isotope composition (δ¹³C) of exhaust from the major fossil fuel emission sources in Salt Lake City, USA, was characterized with 159 measurements of vehicle exhaust of various types and eight measurements of residential furnace exhaust. These two sources were found to be isotopically distinct, and differed from global-scale estimates based on average values for crude petroleum and CH₄. Vehicle-specific factors such as engine load and operation time had no effect on δ¹³C of vehicle exhaust. A small difference was found between the mean δ¹³C of vehicle exhaust collected randomly from different vehicles and the mean δ¹³C of gasoline collected from multiple fueling stations representing major gasoline distributors in Salt Lake City and the surrounding area. However, a paired comparison of δ¹³C of exhaust and gasoline for six different vehicles did not show any consistent C isotope fractionation during vehicle combustion. The mean δ¹³C of crude petroleum processed for local distribution differed slightly from refined gasoline collected at multiple fueling stations, but time lags between processing and transportation cannot be ruled out as an uncontrollable contributing factor. Measured isotope ratios were then combined with fuel consumption statistics to predict the annual cycle of δ¹³C of fossil fuel emissions for the Salt Lake City metropolitan area. The results showed that the isotopic composition of CO₂ emissions from fossil fuel combustion varied by almost 3‰ over the course of the 2002 calendar year. This study illustrates that on a regional scale, the isotopic composition of fossil fuel emissions shows a high degree of both spatial and temporal variability that may influence characterization of C sources and sinks with atmospheric measurements.     

Challenges of renewable energy development and deployment in Ghana: perspectives from developers

GeoJournal - Renewable energy is key to the development of Ghana’s power sector especially for the replacement of fossil fuels, which have become much a talk globally for contributing to...