Quaternary hydrological development in the Morecambe Bay karst,northwest England

The distribution of active and abandoned caves in the Morecambe Bay karst is indicative of at least two phases of subsurface drainage development, separated by an episode of valley incision, landscape dissection and surface lowering. It is suggested that the phase of erosion was associated with glaciation by ice from the adjoining Cumbrian massif, and that the earlier phase of drainage development was of at least last interglacial age. This view is supported by the evidence of the age and mode of deposition of the sedimentary infill in the caves, and by estimates of cave palacocatchment area. The caves of the earlier phase of drainage development were formed in valleys that were already deeply incised. It would therefore appear that the last glaciation only succeeded in slightly modifying an existing topography, a view at odds with conventional ideas of landscape development in Cumbria as a whole.     

福建龙岩龙石空洞发育双酸模式

发育在早二叠世栖霞组大理岩化夹硅质层和含硅质结核的石灰岩中的龙石空洞,是华东地区重要的风景旅游洞穴。是一个干洞与地下河相结合的洞穴系统。由于栖霞组石灰岩与上覆的童子岩夹煤层砂页岩、文笔山砂页岩及下伏的泥盆纪石英砂砾岩呈断层接触,断层接触带形成了地表沟谷。燕山晚期花岗岩侵入时导致栖霞灰岩变质。在地形上,夹煤层砂页岩不仅覆盖在栖霞灰岩上,而且出露部位比灰岩体高。出自煤系地层的水会顺坡或垂直流入灰岩体。出自煤系砂页岩的地下水pH值为3.78～4.73,SO4-2达到240mg/l。源自泥岩夹薄层砂岩和花岗岩地区的地表水,具有pH值6.85～7.25及低Ca2+、HCO3-值水也会流入灰岩体。直接出露灰岩体,雨水入渗土壤,溶解土壤CO2后再进入石灰岩。因此,龙石空洞系统是外源水与内源水共同作用的结果,是由碳酸水和硫酸水联合作用的新型洞穴双成因发育模式的一例。     

A symposium: arctic and alpine karst

The Norwegian soluble carbonates are well karstified, both with respect to surface and subsurface landforms. Caves are formed by the corrosive action of groundwater on marbles and limestone and provide evidence of changing environmental conditions through time. They contain fossils, sediments and speleothems which are dateable backwards in time to 350,000 years and in some cases 1,500,000 years before the present. As the surface bedrock in Norway is glacially polished with few sites of preserved pre-glacial sediments (Roaldset et al. 1982), the study of caves provides a unique tool for establishing the geomorphic, climatic and faunistic history of Norway during the Pleistocene. The Uranium series dating of speleothems satisfies the need for dating methods that go back in time beyond the radiocarbon method (Mangerud 1981).     

The effect of syndepositional deformation within the Upper Permian Capitan Platform on the speleogenesis and geomorphology of the Guadalupe Mountains, New Mexico, USA

The Guadalupe Mountains in New Mexico and Texas are home to more than 300 caves. Caves have been formed within the Upper Permian Capitan carbonate platform and are oriented along two structural trends, one of which is parallel to the platform margin and the other of which is roughly perpendicular to it. Our recent studies of the Capitan Platform have identified syndepositional faults associated with growth monoclines and synclines in Slaughter Canyon, New Mexico, and these are also parallel to the platform margin. In this study, we demonstrate that syndepositional faults and folds are also present in Rattlesnake and Walnut Canyons, as much as 19 km along strike, and that they have exerted control on karstification of the Guadalupe Mountains from the Upper Permian until present.Three distinctive episodes of karst formation have been recognised in outcrops on the basis of karst-filling deposits and crosscutting relationships. The syndepositional “Phase 1 karst” was formed along syndepositional faults and fractures and is filled by platform-derived sediments. The burial “Phase 2 karst” is filled by post-Permian siliciclastics and is limited to the youngest syndepositional faults and fractures that penetrate the platform in the proximity of its terminal margin. Connectivity of these youngest faults and fractures to the platform top and the overlying stratigraphy is inferred to have controlled the distribution of the Phase 2 karst. The “Phase 3 karst” includes the present cave systems, which were mainly formed by sulphuric acid produced by mixing of fossil and fresh underground waters in conjunction with the uplift of the Guadalupe Mountains in the Late Tertiary, and have since been modified by vadose karst processes. The Phase 3 karst caves are not solely developed along syndepositional faults and fractures as the earlier karst palaeocaverns are, but also follow another, uplift-related, structural trend.Syndepositional folds, faults, and fractures in the Capitan Platform have influenced the shaping of the modern surface geomorphology of the Guadalupe Mountains by controlling drainage and, hence, erosion. Trellis drainage parallel to the platform margin is developed where syndepositional folds, faults, and fractures occur. The morphology of the trellis drainage varies systematically across the range in response to the character of the deformation structures and karst features along which the drainage channels have developed.     

贵州普定喀斯特发育特征

本文从喀斯特类型、不同地文期喀斯特地貌、地下河发育、洞穴形态及分类、喀斯特地貌等方面阐明高原峡谷喀斯特的发育特征。     

广东碳酸盐溶洞发育的控制因子

广东省碳酸盐溶洞主要分布在粤北的韶关、清远两市。基岩岩性、地貌位置、水文条件、地质构造和气候条件是该地区溶洞发育的主要控制因子。广泛分布于华南岩溶山区、多级台地、山间盆地的晚古生代厚层碳酸盐岩是溶洞发育的物质基础 ;充沛的降水和活动频繁的地下水是溶洞发育的动力因子 ;褶皱核部、近翼部以及深大断裂的两侧是溶洞发育的有利构造部位     

Karst subzone division in vertical cycle zone and its significance

Vertical cycle karst zone has been studied for more than 100 years, however karst subzones in the zone have never been divided and affected depth of CO2 from rainwater in the zone has never been studied. On the basis of field observation, survey and chemical analysis, the difference of karst processes indicated by CaCO3and pH values in fine and loose sedimentary strata as well as limestone strata, and the vertical cycle zone ascertained by predecessors can be divided into three subzones, that is, the upper first subzone, characterized by unsaturated water solution and strong dissolution processes, the middle second subzone, characterized by supersaturated water solution and precipitation, and the lower third subzone, characterized by unstable water solution and weak dissolution or weak precipitation. The three subzones can indicate the vertical co2 cycle. In fine and loose sediment strata, the bottom of the first subzone is the lower boundary strongly influenced by co2 from rainwater, soil and air; all co2 from rainwater, soil and air is almost exhausted in the second subzone. In the early developmental period of karst process in limestone strata, karst funnels and vertical caves do not form, vertical seeping of rainwater and soil water is very slow, and co2 from soil, rainwater and air almost can reach the third subzone, but in the middle and late developmental periods, karst funnels and vertical caves occur, co2 from soil, rainwater and air can reach deep seasonal change zone and horizontal cycle zone and quicken development of karst morphology. Deep karst morphology near groundwater level under vertical cycle zone develops better in the middle and late periods of karst process.     

垂直循环带内岩溶亚带的划分

1 Introduction On the basis of flowing direction and characteristics of karst processes, four basic vertical karst zones were divided long ago, namely, vertical cycle zone, seasonal alternative cycle zone, horizontal cycle zone and deep cycle zone (Yang e…     

广州夏茅村岩溶塌陷灾害特征及防治对策

通过对广州夏茅村岩溶塌陷进行地质勘察,系统探讨了当地的地质环境条件、岩溶塌陷的灾害特征、岩溶发育条件和岩溶塌陷的形成原因。结果表明,区内第四系覆盖土层厚度大且分布不均,土洞大量发育,隐伏可溶岩的富水性好,溶洞发育;同时,覆盖层内的松散岩类孔隙水与下伏灰岩裂隙溶洞水之间的水力联系密切,含水砂层内地下水位的改变会直接引起下伏灰岩裂隙溶洞水的水位波动,构成岩溶塌陷的水动力因素;钻孔桩施工时钻孔揭穿覆盖层内土洞顶部的黏性土层盖板,造成盖板上部的细砂及淤泥流入土洞,是岩溶塌陷的直接触发因素。在此基础上,提出建立岩溶分布区的地下水动态长期监测网,对岩溶塌陷地段进行灌浆处理,是根治夏茅村岩溶塌陷的主要有效途径。     

喀斯特地貌演化与喀斯特含水层特性

本文根据喀斯特含水层的结构、喀斯特地貌发育的动力过程,探讨不同的喀斯特地貌演化阶段及其相应的喀斯特含水层特征。     

The karst of Sagada Mountain Province,Luzon, Philippines

Speleological investigations during a three month period in late 1982 and early 1983 in the karst of Sagada, Mountain Province, Luzon, Philippines further clarified the initial 1980 study by Deharveng and Orousset. Over 13 km of cave passages were mapped and two main watersheds, Ambasing Spring and Balangagan Spring, were recognized.

The karst of Sagada lies between 1100 and 1600 m elevation in the Oligocene limestones of the Tineg formation. The karst is well developed, both on the surface and in the subsurface. The caves fall into five main types:

1. Potholes (Kitungan Kampus Pit, entrance to Tataya En).

2. Fossil Caves (Lomyang Cave, upper part of many caves).

3. Swallets (Latang Cave, many small swallets, especially during the wet season).

4. Underground rivers (Agoyo-Ige System. Lomyang-Latipan System, Agew Na Nayawakan System, Tataya En System, part of Balangagan Cave).

5. Springs (Ambasing and Balangagan Springs).

The caves are characterized by very wide passages, massive secondary calcite deposits, voluminous collapses, abundant volcanic debris and floods up to 600 times the low flow discharge. Study is not complete, and much work needs to be done, especially to differentiate completely the watersheds of the two main springs.     

华东中部洞穴的类型与特征

本文将华东中部地区的洞穴划为五种成因类型,并以典型洞穴为例,阐述了各类型洞穴的基本特征。同时,对本区洞穴的形态特征也作了分析。     

Surface sediment characteristics and tower karst dissolution, Guilin, southern China

Dissolution of extensive outcrops of limestone and dolostone in humid tropical and subtropical southern China produced numerous caves and residual hills that are referred as tower karst. This study identifies and relates the physical and chemical characteristics of the surface sediment with the limestone bedrock in Guilin to assess the influence of the limestone dissolution process on sediment composition.The results of this study indicated that (i) both limestone and dolostone of the region are very pure (99.5% and 98.5% of CaCO₃ and MgCO₃, respectively); (ii) the material composition of limestone and dolostone is different from that of soil and sediment of the region: constituents of surface sediments are highly related with the clastic sedimentary rocks, such as the mudstone, but show negative correlation with limestone and dolostone; (iii) the limestone formations are highly resistant to physical weathering and disintegration; their durability versus physical weathering and their high susceptibility to chemical dissolution account for why residual towers can form and persist; (iv) a dual-zone environmental structure exists vertically downward from the surface in Guilin: the zone of unconsolidated clastic sediments that is predominantly acidic, and the zone of karstified limestone that is predominantly basic. The evidence suggests that the environment and processes differ in these two zones. The chemical dissolution of limestone that formed tower karst of the region is not mainly responsible for the accumulation of clastic sediment on the surface.     

Faunal records in Norwegian karst caves

Until recently, the amount of published information available about the fauna in Norwegian karst caves has been very limited. The Karst Research Project in Norway, established in 1977, has considerably expanded our knowledge in this field.

As ecosystems, Norwegian karst caves can be divided into two types: 1) open systems – connecting directly to the surface, with rivers or brooks entering through discrete openings. Most animals are surface or surface-related forms which may survive but rarely can reproduce underground. True cavernicoles are not often found; 2) infiltration systems – are fed by seepage water from overlying material, and show a more complex and interesting cave ecosystem, including troglophilic and troglobitic forms (which, with few exceptions, are invertebrates). Vertebrate data from caves in Norway consist of fossils and unfossilized bone remains, usually of mammals. These represent accidentals from stream and pit-fall traps, as well as remains of predator dens.

Two on-going research projects in Norway arc: 1) the Ecosystem Study in Bevergrotta – sampling of the environment and contents has been continued for several years, and has shown this to be one of the most significant cave ecosystems in Norway; 2) Mammalian Remnants in Caves – sampling is still in the preliminary stage, and has collected only exposed remains. The data at present indicate bones of 5700 years old or younger. Clearly deeper sampling over a broad geographic area needs to be done.     

Quaternary glacial events in the Pyrenees from U-series dating of speleothems in the Niaux-Lombrives-Sabart caves,Ariège,France

Located at approximately 150 m above the present base level, the caves of Niaux, Lombrives and Sabart are an old drainage system, which worked between the Vicdessos and Ariège Valleys. In these caves, three successive sedimentary units were studied in detail. Each unit consists of two parts: the lower deposit is detrital, of fluvial origin, and testifies to a hydrological working of the conduit system; the upper deposit of each unit is mostly speleothems, corresponding to a draining of the conduits as the palcokarst evolved above base level. This is similar to the present environment of the caves.

Only the speleothems from the upper part of each unit were dated by the ²³⁰Th/²³⁴ U method. The dates, from 27 samples, are in good agreement with Europe and North America data. The data from the middle (250 to 200 ka BP) and upper (90 to 20 ka BP) fluvial sediments correspond to major glacial events, which re-activated the karst system.

Two further events resulted in a lack of carbonated sedimentation, the first between 350 and 290 ka BP, the second between 175 and 130 ka BP. Comparing the data from other places, these two events can be related to glacial periods of minor importance in the study area, because of the lack of erosion and of detrital sediments.

The oldest detrital sediments are covered by speleothems older than 350 ka BP and, partly, older than 720 ka BP (from paleomagnctic data to be confirmed); from sedimentary data, they may not be related to a glacial event. They are perhaps contemporary with the area's initial cave formation.     

中国喀斯特洞穴发育的区域分异

本文从影响喀斯特洞穴发育区域分异的因素,探讨我国喀斯特洞穴发育的一些区域分异特征。     

Reorganization of a deeply incised drainage: role of deformation,sedimentation and groundwater flow

Deeply incised drainage networks are thought to be robust and not easily modified, and are commonly used as passive markers of horizontal strain. Yet, reorganizations (rearrangements) appear in the geologic record. We provide field evidence of the reorganization of a Miocene drainage network in response to strike–slip and vertical displacements in Guatemala. The drainage was deeply incised into a 50‐km‐wide orogen located along the North America–Caribbean plate boundary. It rearranged twice, first during the Late Miocene in response to transpressional uplift along the Polochic fault, and again in the Quaternary in response to transtensional uplift along secondary faults. The pattern of reorganization resembles that produced by the tectonic defeat of rivers that cross growing tectonic structures. Compilation of remote sensing data, field mapping, sediment provenance study, grain‐size analysis and Ar⁴⁰/Ar³⁹ dating from paleovalleys and their fill reveals that the classic mechanisms of river diversion, such as river avulsion over bedrock, or capture driven by surface runoff, are not sufficient to produce the observed diversions. The sites of diversion coincide spatially with limestone belts and reactivated fault zones, suggesting that solution‐triggered or deformation‐triggered permeability have helped breaching of interfluves. The diversions are also related temporally and spatially to the accumulation of sediment fills in the valleys, upstream of the rising structures. We infer that the breaching of the interfluves was achieved by headward erosion along tributaries fed by groundwater flow tracking from the valleys soon to be captured. Fault zones and limestone belts provided the pathways, and the aquifers occupying the valley fills provided the head pressure that enhanced groundwater circulation. The defeat of rivers crossing the rising structures results essentially from the tectonically enhanced activation of groundwater flow between catchments.     

Numerical modelling of Quaternary terrace staircase formation in the Ebro foreland basin,southern Pyrenees,NE Iberia

The southern foreland basin of the Pyrenees (Ebro basin) is an exorheic drainage basin since Late Miocene times. Remnants of an early exorheic Ebro drainage system are not preserved, but morphology provides evidence for the Pliocene–Quaternary drainage development. The incision history of the Ebro system is denoted by (i) extensive, low gradient pedimentation surfaces which are associated with the denudation of the southern Pyrenean piedmont around the Pliocene–Quaternary transition and (ii) deeply entrenched Quaternary river valleys. Presumably since the Middle Pleistocene fluvial incision intensified involving the formation of extensive terrace staircase in the Ebro basin. Terrace exposure dating in major Ebro tributary rivers indicates climate‐triggered terrace formation in response to glacial–interglacial climate and glacier fluctuations in the Pyrenean headwaters. The overall (semi)parallel longitudinal terrace profiles argue for progressive base level lowering for the whole Ebro drainage network. The landscape evolution model, TISC, is used to evaluate climatic, tectonic and base level scenarios for terrace staircase formation in the Ebro drainage system. Model simulations are compared with morpho‐climatic, tectonic and chronologic data. Results show that climatic fluctuations cause terrace formation, but the incision magnitudes and convergent terrace profiles predicted by this climate model scenario are not consistent with the (semi)parallel terraces in the Ebro basin. A model including previous (late Pliocene) uplift of the lower Ebro basin results in rapid base‐level lowering and erosion along the drainage network, small late stage incision magnitudes and terrace convergence, which are not in agreement with observations. Instead, continuous Quaternary uplift of both the Pyrenees and the Ebro foreland basin triggers (semi)parallel terrace staircase formation in southern Pyrenean tributary rivers in consistency with the observed longitudinal terrace profiles and Middle–Late Pleistocene incision magnitudes. Forward model simulations indicate that the present Ebro drainage system is actively incising, providing further evidence for uplift.     

Evidence for anisotropy in the upper mantle beneath Eurasia from the polarization of higher mode seismic surface waves

Summary. Analysis of NORSAR records and a number of Soviet microfilms reveals second-mode surface Caves propagating along paths covering a large part of Eurasia. These second modes in the 6–15-s period band are frequently disturbed by other surface-wave modes and by body-wave arrivals. However, in all cases, where the modes appear to be undisturbed and show normal dispersion, the Second Rayleigh modes have a slowly varying phase difference with the Second Love modes. This coupling has the particle motion of Inclined Rayleigh waves characteristic of surface-wave propagation in anisotropic media, where the anisotropy possesses a horizontal plane of symmetry. Numerical examination of surface wave propagating in Earth models, with an anisotropic layer in the upper mantle, demonstrate that comparatively small thicknesses of material with weak velocity anisotropy can produce large deviations in the polarizations of Inclined Rayleigh Second modes. In many structures, these inclinations are very sensitive to small changes in anisotropic orientation and to small changes in the surrounding isotropic structure. It is suggested that examination of second mode inclination anomalies of second mode surface waves may be a powerful technique for examining the detailed anisotropic structure of the upper mantle.     

The spatial distribution and factors affecting karst cave development in Guizhou Province

This research examines the distribution features of 4960 caves across Guizhou Province, while probing the relationship between the caves’ spatial patterns and geographic elements. This study is based on hydrogeological and topographic maps of Guizhou. ArcGIS software was used to process the adjacent index, spatial analysis, and coupling analysis of the caves altitude and longitude, as well as the rock properties, lithology, drainage and tectonic division of almost 5000 caves. Based on a point pattern analysis of Guizhou caves, the adjacent index is 0.53, and the coefficient of variation verified by Tyson polygon reached 72.469%. This figure reflects the clustered distribution pattern of the caves. Across the entire province, caves are divided into four concentrated areas and one weakly affected area. The four concentrated areas are Zunyi-Tongren, Bijie, Qianxinan-Liupanshui, and Guiyang- Anshun-Qinan. The one weakly affected zone is Qiandongnan. The most concentrated among them is the Guiyang-Anshun-Qiannan area, which covers 24.67% of the total province area, and accounts for 36.63% of the total province’s caves. Cave distribution in Guizhou is characterized as dense in the western part and sparse in the eastern part. Under this study background, the natural elements of formation, including lithology, structure, climate, hydrology, and altitude, and their effects on the distribution, number, and spatial pattern of cave development is analyzed.