基于GF-1影像的洞庭湖区水体水质遥感监测

湖泊水质监测是有效开展湖泊水环境综合管理与水污染防治实施的基础,也是湖泊藻华风险评估与生态安全建设的重要依据。本文基于GF-1号影像对2014-2016年洞庭湖水体的叶绿素a浓度、悬浮物浓度和透明度展开遥感监测,结果表明：叶绿素a主要集中在水流速度较慢的安乐湖、大小西湖和东洞庭湖西部地区,其他区域水体扰动力大,叶绿素含量a较低。透明度从北到南递增,与悬浮物浓度的分布趋势相反,符合常规监测规律。东洞庭湖水质较南洞庭湖和西洞庭湖差,水污染程度处于全湖最高水平。GF-1数据可精确反映叶绿素a浓度、悬浮物浓度和透明度指数的空间变化规律,也为后续高分遥感影像湖泊水质监测的应用研究提供了重要参考。     

2012 年夏季水团输送对挪威-格陵兰海营养盐及浮游植物群落结构的影响

依托2012 年第五次北极科学考察分析了夏季挪威-格陵兰海域营养盐和光合色素的分布情况, 探讨 水团输送对该海域营养盐分布及对该海域浮游植物群落结构分布的影响。结果显示挪威海和格陵兰海域调 查站位上层(200 m)水体中AT 断面的硝酸盐、磷酸盐及硅酸盐平均浓度分别为9.0(±5.0)、0.65(±0.29)和 1.8(±1.6) μmol·L^–1, BB 断面的硝酸盐、磷酸盐及硅酸盐平均浓度分别为8.9(±3.8)、0.71(±0.22)和1.8(± 1.6) μmol·L^–1。挪威海和格陵兰海域上层水体中硅酸盐相对于硝酸盐远远不足, 且呈显著硅限制, 该限制随 纬度的升高有所减轻, 表现为北冰洋入流水的硅酸盐输送。光合色素与温度和营养盐的关系表现为: 与温度 呈正相关, 与营养盐呈负相关。光合色素的分布结果表明, 挪威-格陵兰海域浮游植物群落表层以硅藻或硅 藻和定鞭金藻为主, 次表层(叶绿素最大层)则以硅藻为优势种, 并且硅藻更易聚集于混合层下方温跃层上 方, 定鞭金藻在表层水体低营养盐的条件下更具竞争力。此外, 由于受大西洋入流分支的影响, 浮游植物向挪 威-大西洋流流经区域聚集(温度更高且营养盐充分), 形成区域浮游植物分布差异。     

九龙江河口区养虾塘水体营养盐与叶绿素a含量的变化特征及影响因素

于2015年6月18日(养殖初期)、8月20日(养殖中期)和10月10日(养殖后期),在九龙江河口区3个陆基对虾(Penaeus vannamei)养虾塘,采集不同深度的水样,在实验室中,对水样进行测试分析,探讨九龙江河口区养虾塘水体中的可溶性无机氮、磷酸盐和叶绿素a(chlorophyll a)含量变化特征及其主要影响因素。研究结果表明,养虾塘水体中的可溶性无机氮、磷酸盐和叶绿素a的质量浓度分别为0.67~1.25 mg/L、0.019~0.148 mg/L和24.71~110.23μg/L,三者都是在养殖中期最大,在养殖初期最小;在不同养殖阶段,养虾塘水体中的营养盐含量随水深的变化略有差异,在每个养殖阶段,从水体表层到底层,水体叶绿素a含量都在逐渐减小。养虾塘水体中的营养盐含量受不同养殖阶段水质参数(水温、p H、溶解氧含量和盐度)、饵料投喂强度和虾生命代谢活动等因素影响,水体叶绿素a含量主要受到水温、盐度、营养盐含量和虾生物量的影响。     

鄱阳湖丰水期水体中叶绿素a含量空间分布及其与环境因子的关系

在2011年8月和2012年7月丰水期,在鄱阳湖湖区布设77个采样点,大规模采集水样,研究浮游植物生物量(以水体中叶绿素a含量表示)在湖区的空间分布,并探讨叶绿素a与相关环境因子之间的关系。结果表明,鄱阳湖丰水期水体中叶绿素a质量浓度较低,平均值为10.58μg/L;叶绿素a含量的空间分布特征为:东南湖区最高,中部湖区居中,北部通江区较低。Spearman秩相关分析结果表明,水体中叶绿素a含量与水体透明度显著正相关,与总悬浮颗粒物含量、总氮含量、亚硝态氮含量、硝态氮含量和溶解性总氮含量显著负相关,与其他营养盐含量不相关。水下光照条件是限制鄱阳湖浮游植物丰水期生长的主要因素;鄱阳湖水体交换时间较短,也在一定程度上抑制了浮游植物的生长;丰水期,高水位稀释了水体中的营养盐浓度,从而掩盖了其对浮游植物的作用,导致营养盐的作用不明显。     

白洋淀台田沟渠水生植物营养盐特征及其影响因子分析

水生植物是湖泊生态系统的重要组成部分,对湖泊的营养状态和营养循环有极其重要的作用.于2012年5月和9月,对白洋淀台田沟渠水生植物进行了野外调查,分析水生植物的营养盐特征及其与水体理化因子的相关关系.研究结果表明,台田沟渠共有水生植物14种,分别分布于台田内、外边缘及内部水域.芦苇Phragmites australis)、紫背浮萍(Spirodela polyhiza)、水鳖(Hydracharis dubta)、金鱼藻(Ceratophyllum demersum)、菹草(Potamogeton crispus)、马来眼子菜(Potamogeton malaianus)和光叶眼子菜(Potamogeton lucens)营养盐含量相对较高,而轮藻(Chara sp.)和穗花狐尾藻(Myrioph yllum spicatum)营养盐含量较低;植物全氮含量分别与全碳含量、全磷含量显著相关.水体营养盐和光照是决定台田区水生植物营养盐特征的关键环境因子.     

南极夏季普里兹湾叶绿素a的时空变化研究

利用SeaWiFs、MODIS卫星数据所获取的南极普里兹湾表层海水叶绿素a（Chl-a）与海表温度（SST）的遥感数据,并结合我国2001-2011年南极科学考察所获得的现场数据,对该区域的海表温度、叶绿素a与营养盐的分布规律进行分析。结果表明：研究海区的叶绿素a的分布具有明显的区域特征,以陆架坡为界,湾内向湾外表现出明显的递减趋势;在湾内陆架区,浮游植物的旺发主要受海冰消融以及营养盐供给的影响,十年南极夏季叶绿素a浓度的遥感区域平均值为1.40mg/m3;在陆坡区,浮游植物的繁殖主要受到水文条件的影响,十年的夏季遥感平均值为0.44mg/m3;在湾外深海区,浮游植物的繁殖主要受到水文条件与铁元素的影响,浓度较低,十年的夏季遥感平均值为0.25mg/m3。在整个南极夏季,研究海域每月的叶绿素a浓度与海表温度呈现出一定的正相关性（R2=0.505）,而在年际变化上,叶绿素a与海表温度的变化趋势也有着明显的相似性,表明温度是叶绿素a浓度的主要影响因素。通过研究多变量厄尔尼诺指数与湾内表层叶绿素a浓度的关系,可知在相对敏感的湾内陆架区,厄尔尼诺/拉尼娜可能会对叶绿素a的浓度产生影响,在厄尔尼诺年,叶绿素a的浓度较高;而在拉妮娜年,叶绿素a的浓度较低,表明高纬度海区浮游植物的生长与繁殖对中低纬度的ENSO事件存在一定的响应联系。     

6种水生植物腐烂过程中水质理化指标的变化室内模拟研究

为了研究各类水生植物腐烂过程中产生的营养盐对石佛寺人工湿地水体水质的持续影响,在室内模拟4类6种水生植物[漂浮植物槐叶苹(Salvinia natans)、浮水植物丘角菱(Trapa japonica)、挺水植物水烛(Typha angustifolia)和荷花(Nelumbo nucifera)、沉水植物选择穗状狐尾藻(Myriophyllum spicatum)和金鱼藻(Ceratophyllum demersum)]的腐烂过程。漂浮植物和浮水植物组、挺水植物组、沉水植物组都进行了加底泥与不加底泥实验,沉水植物组同时还进行了不同生物量植物腐烂过程对比研究。测定的指标包括水温、水体p H和水中的溶解氧含量、化学需氧量含量、总氮含量、总磷含量以及底泥的全氮、全磷和有机质含量。研究结果表明,漂浮植物、浮水植物和沉水植物最易腐烂,挺水植物相对腐烂较慢,沉水植物腐烂、分解最彻底,植物生物量越大,其腐烂时释放的营养物质越多;放置同类植物实验桶内水的p H变化规律相同,加底泥与否不影响水的p H变化规律,挺水植物实验组水中的溶解氧含量变化规律与其它实验组不同,主要与植物内部结构组织有关;挺水植物在腐烂过程中,释放有机物的过程最漫长,且释放量较大,底泥不影响水中总氮含量的变化规律,但影响水中总氮的含量;在漂浮植物、浮水植物和挺水植物腐烂过程中,其向水中释放磷的速率高于沉水植物,是否加底泥和植物生物量能影响水中总磷含量,磷在水体和底泥之间存在明显的吸附、沉淀和迁移现象。在湖泊管理过程中,应减少向湖泊系统中输入过多的能量,及时清理湖中的底泥,以避免造成水体二次污染。     

青藏高原东北部更尕海 7—9月水-气界面 CH4、N2O交换通量变化及其影响因素

为了解青藏高原浅水草型湖泊水-气界面 CH4与 N2O通量的交换机制,以青藏高原东北部的更尕海为例,分别在 2021年 7月、8月、9月采用漂浮静态箱-气相色谱仪法对其水-气界面 CH4、N2O交换通量进行连续、定点观测,并结合流域气象、湖泊水环境探讨其影响因素。结果表明:(1)更尕海水-气界面 CH4交换通量平均值为 0.557mg(/ m2·h),整体表现为源;N2O交换通量平均值为-0.100μg(/ m2·h),整体表现为弱汇。(2)在空间上,受水生植物分布差异影响,更尕海黄苔分布区为水-气界面 CH4排放的热点区域,其次为狐尾藻分布区,无植被分布区最低。N2O交换通量的变化受污染负荷的影响,粪便排放区是 N2O排放的热点区域。(3)在时间上,CH4交换通量的变化则受温度影响,CH4排放峰值主要出现于 15:00时;N2O交换通量的变化与沉水植物的光合作用有关。沉水植物光合作用向水体释放 O₂并使 pH升高,从而抑制了沉积物中的反硝化作用与微生物活性,使得湖泊整体表现为 N2O的“汇”。(4)相较于中国东部湖泊,青藏高原气压低,使得水体 DO含量相对较低,减弱了水体对 CH4的氧化作用,还降低了水体中 CH4的溶解度,导致青藏高原湖泊 CH4排放通量显著高于中国东部湖泊。而青藏高原湖泊受人类活动的干扰较小,外源性污染较轻,造成该区域 N2O排放通量显著低于中国东部湖泊。     

阳宗海硅藻群落对水体污染和水文调控的长期响应模式

在人类活动持续干扰的背景下,云南部分湖泊面临着污染物输入增加的环境压力,特别是营养盐富集和重金属污染。以云南地区遭受过严重工业污染的阳宗海为研究对象,通过沉积物硅藻群落、砷浓度、营养元素与稳定同位素、粒度等多指标分析,结合文献记录和湖泊调查结果,揭示了阳宗海硅藻群落对湖泊富营养化和砷污染的长期响应特征,并识别了不同时期的主要环境压力与其驱动强度。结果表明：长期的营养盐累积使得浮游硅藻逐渐占据优势地位,且耐污染的底栖硅藻种的快速增加与砷污染出现的时段一致。在阳宗海长期富营养化的背景下,当水体砷污染物浓度达到一定阈值水平后,硅藻群落结构的改变和多样性的降低都指示了湖泊生态系统发生了灾难性的转变。同时1965年开始的湖泊引水工程导致了贫营养种的突然增加。因此,水体富营养化、重金属污染与湖泊水文调控是导致阳宗海硅藻群落长期变化的主控因子,对阳宗海的生态修复与综合治理需要综合考虑不同胁迫因子的长期影响与驱动作用。     

阳宗海硅藻群落对水体污染和水文调控的长期响应模式北大核心CSCDCSSCI

在人类活动持续干扰的背景下,云南部分湖泊面临着污染物输入增加的环境压力,特别是营养盐富集和重金属污染。以云南地区遭受过严重工业污染的阳宗海为研究对象,通过沉积物硅藻群落、砷浓度、营养元素与稳定同位素、粒度等多指标分析,结合文献记录和湖泊调查结果,揭示了阳宗海硅藻群落对湖泊富营养化和砷污染的长期响应特征,并识别了不同时期的主要环境压力与其驱动强度。结果表明:长期的营养盐累积使得浮游硅藻逐渐占据优势地位,且耐污染的底栖硅藻种的快速增加与砷污染出现的时段一致。在阳宗海长期富营养化的背景下,当水体砷污染物浓度达到一定阈值水平后,硅藻群落结构的改变和多样性的降低都指示了湖泊生态系统发生了灾难性的转变。同时1965年开始的湖泊引水工程导致了贫营养种的突然增加。因此,水体富营养化、重金属污染与湖泊水文调控是导致阳宗海硅藻群落长期变化的主控因子,对阳宗海的生态修复与综合治理需要综合考虑不同胁迫因子的长期影响与驱动作用。     

Thermal structure of the lakes of the North-West of Russia during the freeze-up period

On the basis of analyzing long-term field data, we investigated the vertical thermal structure of 66 lakes of the North-West of Russia during the freeze-up period. The largest variability in thermal structure is characteristic for low-drainage shallow water bodies. Detailed data were obtained at self-contained buoy stations located in a small Lake Vendyurskoe (southern Karelia) were used to identify water temperature changes at the depths for a winter season as well as making assessments of het flows at the water–bottom and water–ice interfaces. The interannual water temperature variability at the depths reaches 2°C. The main geographical factors influencing the formation of thermal stratifications in the 66 lakes used in the study during the winter period are their mean depth, area, water residence time and geographical latitude. The largest vertical water temperature gradients are characteristic for the group of the smallest and shallow lakes, in the bottom layers of which the water temperature exceeds the temperature of maximum density, whereas in the deep lakes (more than 15 m) the water temperature is below 4°C. The lowest values of water temperature are observed in large lakes. The water temperature in the upper layer (up to 10 m) of drainage water bodies also decreases to 0–1°C as the result of the removal of heat with the river discharge. According to the thermal stratifications, the lakes are categorized as small (shallow, deep and drainage lakes), medium-sized and large shallow and large deep lakes. The suggested regression model permits a typical water temperature to be assessed at standard depths at the end of a winter season for any water body in the study region using available geographical information. The verification of the model is done from independent data for eight lakes of Finland.     

SPATIAL DISTRIBUTION OF NUTRIENTS OF SHALLOW LAKE IN THE ZHALONG WETLAND

1 INTRODUCTIONNitrogen and phosphorus in the water are the nu-trients limited in natural wetlands,which seriously in-fluence on the ecosystem production and the biodiver-sity(Mitsch,Grosselin,2000).Nitrogen and phos-phorus recycles have been interrupted b…     

两个相连湖泊的微生态系统——云南高原湖泊中浅水的星云湖和深水的抚仙湖研究

抚仙湖是中国云南省的一个深水湖，连接着富营养化的浅水湖－－星云湖，星云湖排放含绿藻的水进入抚仙湖。两湖位于省会昆明附近，由于地方文化、集约化农业、以及旅游业的发展，两湖已经富营养化。因为湖泊体积容量的级别差异，深水湖的富营养化几乎没被注意，抚仙湖秋季下层滞水带缺氧已经关注了20年，似乎下层滞水带是深水湖富营养化的指标或趋势。抚仙湖看起来目前情况尚好，可以说寡营养，然而，外界负荷是潜在的，且是以稳定的加速度进行的。在此对浅水湖富营养化的原因进行了讨论，包括在其它云南湖泊观察到富营养化的过程，再者，对两个连相湖的藻和蓝藻碎片的大小构成进行比照。为了与深水的抚仙湖状况进行比较，简略介绍了一个日本的深湖及其径流系统。其中，涡流和它的微生态系统，在两者中相关性很好。对于以涡流生态系统的见解判断微生态系统的深水湖富营养化问题将给予概括。     

Distribution of diatom assemblages and their relationship to environmental variables in the surface sediments of three northern Egyptian lakes

Surficial sediments of three northern Egyptian lakes (Manzala, Burullus and Edku) show differences in diatom assemblages deposited in different sites of these lakes. A total of 172 species and varieties belonging to 58 genera were identified and counted from 62 samples. Of these, 163 diatom taxa were recorded from Manzala Lake sediments, 147 taxa were found in Burullus Lake sediments, and 117 taxa were identified in Edku Lake sediments. The considerable variation in the composition and distribution of the diatom assemblages among these lakes was mainly related to differences in the water quality, salinity, the concentration of nutrients and climatic changes. The planktonic diatom Cyclotella meneghiniana was dominant in the majority of the samples from Manzala Lake, but dominant in only a few samples from the middle parts of Burullus and Edku lakes. The non-planktonic epiphytic taxa Cocconeis placentula and Epithemia sorex were the subdominant species in the surface sediments, especially in shallow and marginal parts of the lakes. Multivariate statistical techniques (hierarchical ascending clustering and canonical correspondence analysis) were used to identify ecological groups of diatoms and to investigate which environmental variables were important in explaining the variation between these groups. Eight ecological groups containing distinctive diatom assemblages reflect current environmental conditions; especially saltwater intrusion in the north and nutrient-rich freshwater in the south.     

Conditions for deposition of annually laminated sediments in small meromictic lakes: a case study of Lake Suminko (northern Poland)

A three-year field study was conducted in Lake Suminko, Poland, to gain an understanding of the limnological variables that influence the formation and spatial extent of annually laminated sediments in the lake. The water body is divided into three depth strata, the mixolimnion, chemocline and monimolimnion, each defined by distinct values of temperature, electrical conductivity and oxygen concentration. Typical for meromictic lakes, the monimolimnion remains perennially anoxic and is rich in dissolved solids and nutrients. The annual pattern of particle flux in Lake Suminko is closely related to biochemical processes in the euphotic zone. During winter months we observed very low accumulation rates of non-carbonaceous matter, while during the rest of the year, three periods of calcite deposition were recorded (April, July–August, and October–November). The periods of high calcite deposition corresponded with algal blooms and oxygen concentration maxima. Two principal factors contribute to meromixis in Lake Suminko: (1) the basin is sheltered, preventing wind mixing, and (2) biochemical processes in the lake associated with high lacustrine productivity. Meromictic conditions must control the formation and preservation of laminated sediments in the lake because preserved laminations occur only in areas where the lake floor lies below monimolimnetic waters.     

Limnological characteristics of vertical structure in the lakes of Syowa Oasis,East Antarctica

We investigated the vertical structure of physicochemical properties in 27 lakes at Skarvsnes and Langhovde, Syowa Oasis, East Antarctica, from December 2003 to February 2004. The lakes were classified into three types based on their origin and geographical characteristics: non-marine relic lakes, marine relic and lotic lakes, and marine relic and lentic lakes. We describe the physicochemical characteristics of each lake type. When the non-marine relic lakes were partly covered with ice, the water column was stratified beneath the ice. In the non-marine relic lakes, during the season with no ice cover, physicochemical parameters were uniform throughout the water column, probably due to frequent vertical mixing induced by wind force and thermal convection within the shallow basins. Similarly, in marine relic and lotic lakes, lake waters appeared to be completely mixed because of a large inflow of meltwater from glaciers and outflow to other lakes and the coastal sea. In the marine relic and lentic lakes, except for Lake Himebati-ike, the lake water was vertically stratified with a strong halocline. In Lakes Suribati-ike and Hunazoko-ike, salinity was very high (up to 20%) due to evapoconcentration. Lake Suribati-ike is a meromictic lake, with a monimolimnion developed below 10 m water depth.     

抚仙湖-星云湖出流改道工程环境影响分析

抚仙湖、星云湖综合治理出流改道工程旨在“保护抚仙湖、改善星云湖、不影响东风水库水质”，不仅涉及到玉溪市饮用水源的保护和城市水源的长远发展规划，还涉及到东风水库、曲江和海口河至南盘江及其沿岸城市引水工程的防洪度汛，及两湖一库（抚仙湖、星云湖、东风水库）流域的生物多样性保护和自然生态环境保护。因此，工程实施前对工程的主要生态环境影响进行全面的分析非常必要。对工程所涉及到的抚仙湖、星云湖和东风水库的水质、生态效应、生物交流以及流域内的相关用水工程的影响作较为全面的分析，旨在为工程的进一步实施提供决策参考。     

Reconstructing fluctuations of a shallow East African lake during the past 1800 yrs from sediment stratigraphy in a submerged crater basin

The sedimentology of an 8.22-m long core of late-Holocene deposits in the submerged Crescent Island Crater basin of Lake Naivasha, Kenya, is used to reconstruct decade-scale fluctuations in lake-surface elevation during the past 1800 yrs. Lake-depth inference for the past 1000 yrs is semi-quantitative, based on (1) relationships between lake level and bottom dynamics predicted by wave theory, and (2) historical validation of the effects of lake-level fluctuation and hydrologic closure on sediment composition in Crescent Island Crater and nearby Lake Oloidien. In these shallow fluctuating lakes, organic-carbon variation in a lithological sequence from clayey mud to algal gyttja is positively correlated with lake depth at the time of deposition, because the focusing of oxidized littoral sediments which dilute autochthonous organic matter before burial is reduced during highstands. The lake-level reconstruction for Lake Naivasha agrees with other adequately dated lake-level records from equatorial East Africa in its implication of dry climatic conditions during the Mediaeval Warm Period and generally wet conditions during the Little Ice Age. Crescent Island Crater survived widespread aridity in the early-19th century as a fresh weedy pond, while the main basin of Lake Naivasha and many other shallow East African lakes fell dry and truncated their sediment archive of Little Ice Age climatic variability.     

Seasonal ecosystem variability in remote mountain lakes: implications for detecting climatic signals in sediment records

Weather variation and climate fluctuations are the main sources of ecosystem variability in remote mountain lakes. Here we describe the main patterns of seasonal variability in the ecosystems of nine lakes in Europe, and discuss the implications for recording climatic features in their sediments. Despite the diversity in latitude and size, the lakes showed a number of common features. They were ice-covered between 5–9 months, and all but one were dimictic. This particular lake was long and shallow, and wind action episodically mixed the water column throughout the ice-free period. All lakes showed characteristic oxygen depletion during the ice-covered-period, which was greater in the most productive lakes. Two types of lakes were distinguished according to the number of production peaks during the ice-free season. Lakes with longer summer stratification tended to have two productive periods: one at the onset of stratification, and the other during the autumn overturn. Lakes with shorter stratification had a single peak during the ice-free period. All lakes presented deep chlorophyll maxima during summer stratification, and subsurface chlorophyll maxima beneath the ice. Phosphorus limitation was common to all lakes, since nitrogen compounds were significantly more abundant than the requirements for the primary production observed. The major chemical components present in the lakes showed a short but extreme dilution during thawing. Certain lake features may favour the recording of particular climatic fluctuations, for instance: lakes with two distinct productive periods, climatic fluctuations in spring or autumn (e.g., through chrysophycean cysts); lakes with higher oxygen consumption, climatic factors affecting the duration of the ice-cover (e.g., through low-oxygen tolerant chironomids); lakes with higher water retention time; changes in atmospheric deposition (e.g., through carbon or pigment burial); lakes with longer stratification, air temperature changes during summer and autumn (e.g., through all epilimnetic species).     

Early Holocene water budget of the Nakuru-Elmenteita basin, Central Kenya Rift

The Nakuru-Elmenteita basin in the Central Kenya Rift, contains two shallow, alkaline lakes, Lake Nakuru (1770 m above sea level) and Lake Elmenteita (1786 m). Ancient shorelines and lake sediments at 1940 m suggest that these two lakes formed a single large and deep lake as a result of a wetter climate during the early Holocene. Here, we used a hydrological model to compare the precipitation–evaporation balance during the early Holocene to today. Assuming that the Nakuru-Elmenteita basin was hydrologically closed, as it is today, the most likely climate scenario includes a 45% increase in mean-annual precipitation, a 0.5°C decrease in air temperature, and an increase of 9% in cloud coverage from the modern values. Compared to the modeling results from other East African lake basins, this dramatic increase in precipitation seems to be unrealistic. Therefore, we propose a significant flow of water from the early Holocene Lake Naivasha in the south towards the Nakuru-Elmenteita basin to compensate the extremely negative hydrological budget of this basin. Since we did not find any field evidence for a surface connection, as often proposed during the last 70 years, the hydrological deficit of the Nakuru-Elmenteita basin could have also been compensated by a subsurface water exchange.