Mechanical Behaviour of Cyclically Heated Fine Grained Rock

Summary The most vital difference between rock and rock mass are fractures and fissures. They affect the behaviour and strength of rock masses. According to their origin, size, and shape, rock mass contains several types of weakness planes varying from microfissure to faults. Other parameters such as underground water, temperature, time and stress state affect the rock's behaviour in its natural environment. The frequency of discontinuities in fractured rock is one of the basic parameters for reducing its strength. However it is generally difficult to test undisturbed fractured rock in a laboratory environment. In this study it was tried to open and loosen the grain boundaries of fine-grained rock specimens by cyclical heating and cooling. This should serve as a physical simulation of fractures in the rock mass and enables a discussion of the changes in mechanical behaviour of fractured rock. For this reason, laboratory test specimens of Carrara marble and Buchberger sandstone were used. The heating cycles were varied from 0 to 16. From the results of uniaxial compression, Brazilian and “Continuous Failure State” triaxial tests, it was pointed out that all of the mechanical parameters decreased gradually with an increasing number of heating cycles. Uniaxial compressive strength was reduced to about 50%, while the tensile strength decreased to about 60% for both types of rock. It was also observed that the variations of strength parameters were higher after the first heating cycles. As a result of cyclical heating, the slopes of pre-failure and post-failure curves in the stress-strain plane changed similarly, but the variations of modulus of elasticity were higher than the slopes of the post-failure curves for sandstone. The ratio between compressive and indirect tensile strength rose to a value of 98 after the last heating cycle. For unheated specimens of Carrara marble this ratio is 20. The axial strain at the failure point increased suddenly after the first heating cycle and the failure developed entirely intergranular in cyclically heated specimens.     

花岗岩矿物组成与其单轴抗压强度的相关性研究

花岗岩体是很多重要工程地基或围岩的首选。选取高放废物地质处置阿拉善预选区巴彦诺日公花岗岩样品,开展薄片鉴定,获得各花岗岩样品的矿物含量和粒径;通过单轴压缩试验,获得花岗岩的单轴抗压强度。通过对比各组样品矿物含量和粒径与单轴抗压强度,研究二者之间的关系。结果表明:对花岗岩单轴抗压强度影响最大的矿物是钾长石和黑云母,斜长石和石英的影响不明显;矿物粒径与单轴抗压强度的相关性不明显,但与某一结构岩石单轴抗压强度的相关性明显;花岗岩的强度不仅仅取决于组成矿物含量和粒径,对于其内部结构的细节（如微裂隙、矿物排列、胶结等）非常敏感。     

高温作用后花岗岩三轴压缩试验研究

为综合考察温度、围压对花岗岩力学性质及破坏方式的影响,在高温（25℃～1 000 ℃）作用后,利用MTS815.02电液伺服材料试验系统对花岗岩岩样进行不同围压作用下的三轴压缩试验。研究结果表明,（1）围压一定时,经历不同高温作用后花岗岩三轴压缩全应力-应变曲线经历了压密、弹性、屈服、破坏、塑性流动5个阶段;（2）经历不同高温作用后岩样三轴抗压强度与围压呈非线性二次多项式增长关系,围压为40 MPa时的抗压强度比单轴抗压强度提高了382.30%;常规三轴压缩条件下,400 ℃是花岗岩力学参数的阀值温度;（3）经历高温作用后,岩样弹性模量随围压升高呈增大趋势,围压为40 MPa时的弹性模量比单轴时提高了90.26%;随温度升高呈二次非线性减小,1 000 ℃时的弹性模量比25℃时降低了57.16%;（4）花岗岩的失稳型式同时取决于围压和温度。单轴压缩状态下,随着温度的升高,岩样变形破坏型式由脆性破裂向塑性变形过渡,失稳型式在低温时为突发失稳、中高温为准突发失稳,温度高于800 ℃为渐进破坏;三轴压缩状态下,随着围压的增大,岩样破裂型式由脆性张拉破裂逐渐向剪切破裂过渡,岩样的失稳型式以突发失稳为主。在试验温压范围内,影响花岗岩力学性质的首要因素是温度,其次是围压。     

Quantitative Assessment of Extrinsic Damage in Rock Materials

Summary   Comminution (crushing and grinding) of rock materials is energy-intensive and expensive. Much effort has been directed to improve the efficiency of conventional milling practice, but relatively little attention has been given to the potential benefits of blast-induced (extrinsic) damage on comminution processes. The objective of this research is to investigate the effect of shock-induced “crack-like” damage on rock properties for three petrologically distinct rock materials under laboratory conditions. In order to evaluate the effect of shock-induced damage, a quantitative measure of rock damage is needed. Shock loading of rock material was accomplished with an explosively driven split Hopkinson pressure bar. Laboratory measurements show that the average uniaxial compressive strengths for damaged specimens are slightly lower than those for intact specimens. Based on damage mechanics, the scalar damage variable () was experimentally determined as the relative reduction in ultrasonic wave velocity of damaged versus intact rock. increases as the shock energy dissipated in rock material increases. A crack density was determined by confocal image analysis. Measurements following shock loading indicate that ultrasonic wave velocity in rock partially recovers with time. Ultrasonic wave velocity and confocal image analysis may be useful in quantitatively assessing the internal crack-like damage in rock materials.     

Development of Specimen Curing Procedures that Account for the Influence of Effective Stress During Curing on the Strength of Cemented Mine Backfill

Paste backfill used to provide ground support in underground mining is generated from full-stream tailings and is almost always placed underground with cement. For the backfill, both the rate of strength development and the final strength are important considerations for design, particularly when the backfill is subsequently exposed in the stope-mining sequence. There is strong evidence that strengths measured on specimens obtained from coring the in situ cemented backfill are much greater than laboratory-cured specimens with the same cement content. The paper reviews some of the experimental evidence showing that one of the major reasons for the different strength is the difference in effective stress acting on the backfill during curing. Laboratory specimens are (almost) always cured under zero total stress, so no effective stress develops. In contrast, backfill in a stope may cure under high effective stress, which develops due to either “conventional” consolidation in free-draining backfills, or to the so-called “self-desiccation” mechanism in fine-grained fills. Evidence is presented showing how the final strength is affected by applying stress to specimens at different stages of curing and at different rates. It is shown that a fully-coupled analysis of the filling behaviour is required to determine the appropriate effective stress regime to apply in curing laboratory specimens, where “fully-coupled” in this context means taking account of the interaction of consolidation/drainage rate, filling rate and cement hydration rate. Curing protocols for laboratory specimens are proposed, which would ensure that the strengths obtained are representative of in situ conditions.     

Prediction of uniaxial compressive strength of sandstones using petrography-based models

The uniaxial compressive strength of intact rock is the main parameter used in almost all engineering projects. The uniaxial compressive strength test requires high quality core samples of regular geometry. The standard cores cannot always be extracted from weak, highly fractured, thinly bedded, foliated and/or block-in-matrix rocks. For this reason, the simple prediction models become attractive for engineering geologists. Although, the sandstone is one of the most abundant rock type, a general prediction model for the uniaxial compressive strength of sandstones does not exist in the literature. The main purposes of the study are to investigate the relationships between strength and petrographical properties of sandstones, to construct a database as large as possible, to perform a logical parameter selection routine, to discuss the key petrographical parameters governing the uniaxial compressive strength of sandstones and to develop a general prediction model for the uniaxial compressive strength of sandstones. During the analyses, a total of 138 cases including uniaxial compressive strength and petrographic properties were employed. Independent variables for the multiple prediction model were selected as quartz content, packing density and concavo–convex type grain contact. Using these independent variables, two different prediction models such as multiple regression and ANN were developed. Also, a routine for the selection of the best prediction model was proposed in the study. The constructed models were checked by using various prediction performance indices. Consequently, it is possible to say that the constructed models can be used for practical purposes.     

Evidence for a Long-Term Strength Threshold in Crystalline Rock

The mechanical response of brittle rock to long-duration compression loading is of particular concern in underground disposal of nuclear waste, where radionuclides must be isolated from the biosphere for periods of the order of a million years. Does the strength decrease without limit over such time, or is there, for some rock types, a lower “threshold” strength below which the rock will cease to deform? This paper examines the possibility of such a threshold in silicate crystalline rocks from several perspectives, including: (1) interpretation of the results of short-term creep tests on rock; (2) numerical analysis of the effect of decrease in fracture toughness due to stress corrosion on the strength of a crystalline rock; and (3) evidence from plate tectonics, and observations of in situ rock stress in granite quarries. The study concludes that there is clear evidence of threshold strength. The threshold is of the order of 40% of the unconfined compressive strength or higher for laboratory specimens under unconfined compressive loading, and increases rapidly in absolute value with confinement. Field evidence also leads to the conclusion that the long-term strength of crystalline rock in situ is of comparable magnitude to the laboratory value.     

基于H-B准则的公路桥梁桩基嵌岩深度计算

基于Hoek-Brown强度准则,推导了在微小转动下嵌岩段桩侧法向应力及水平摩阻力计算模型,采用静力平衡原理建立了水平荷载作用下公路桥梁桩基嵌岩深度的计算公式,提出了嵌岩深度计算的新方法。参数敏感性及影响因素分析表明： （1）水平荷载引起的力矩 、桩径d、岩层上覆压力 、岩石单轴抗压强度 、岩体类别参数 、岩体地质力学分类指标RMR均对嵌岩深度有一定影响,在 、d不变的情况下,岩体质量和岩石单轴抗压强度对嵌岩深度的确定最为敏感; （2）岩体质量越差,所需嵌岩深度越大;岩体质量越好,岩层上覆压力对嵌岩深度影响越小,反之越大。（3）嵌岩深度随岩石单轴抗压强度的提高呈非线性缓慢地减小,在相同的单轴抗压强度下,岩体质量越好,嵌岩深度越小,反之越大。     

Influence of Sample Height-to-Width Ratios on Failure Mode for Rectangular Prism Samples of Hard Rock Loaded In Uniaxial Compression

Surface-parallel slabbing is a failure mode often observed in highly stressed hard rocks in underground excavations. This paper presents the results of experimental studies on slabbing failure of hard rock with different sample height-to-width ratios. The main purpose of this study was to find out the condition to create slabbing failure under uniaxial compression and to determine the slabbing strength of hard rock in the laboratory. Uniaxial compression tests were carried out using five groups of granite specimens. The mechanical parameters of the sample rock, Iddefjord granite from Norway, were measured on the cylindrical and Brazilian disc specimens. The transition of the failure mode was studied using rectangular prism specimens. The initiation and the propagation of slabbing fractures in specimens were identified by examining the relationship among the applied stress, strain and the acoustic emission. The stress thresholds identified were compared to those reported by other authors for crack initiation and brittle failure. It is observed that the macro failure mode will be transformed from shear to slabbing when the height/width ratio is reduced to 0.5 in the prism specimens under uniaxial compression. Micro σ ₁-parallel fractures initiate when the lateral strain departs from its linearity. Slabbing fractures are approximately parallel to the loading direction. Labotatory tests show that the slabbing strength (σ _sl) of hard rock is about 60% of its uniaxial compression strength. It means that if the maximum tangential stress surrounding an underground excavation reaches about the slabbing threshold, slabbing fractures may take place on the boundary of the excavation. Therefore, the best way to stop or eliminate slabbing failure is to control the excavation boundary to avoid the big stress concentration, so that the maximum tangential stress could be under the slabbing threshold.     

花岗岩低温热力效应参数及强度规律研究

长期处于变低温环境中的岩石热力学效应主要表现为材料的力学特性参数、热力系数和饱和冻结状态孔隙冰胀系数等随温度改变而发生变化,这种变化对岩体的变形及强度特性均有显著影响。根据变物性参数的非线性热弹性理论,建立了考虑热力系数和冰胀力系数的本构方程,给出了单轴压缩条件下热力效应系数随温度变化的分析格式和确定方法;借助于花岗岩不同低温干燥和饱和冻结状态的单轴压缩试验资料,获得了花岗岩低温热力效应与温度的关系,并探讨了其对花岗岩抗压强度的影响特性。分析表明,在变低温环境下花岗岩热力系数和冰胀力系数均随相对温差的增大而逐渐减小,热力系数降低速率小于冰胀系数降低速率,在同一温差下热力系数大于冰胀系数;热应力和冰胀应力与温度改变量呈非线性增长关系;花岗岩抗压强度在两种状态下均呈增大趋势,但主要以热应力为主,热力系数引起的试样轴向应力增量总是大于冰胀力引起的轴向应力增量。所给方法及研究成果可用于长期处于变低温状态下材料的力学性能研究及其工程应用。     

Stress-Dependent Fluid Flow and Permeability in Fractured Media: from Lab Experiments to Engineering Applications

Summary. Permeability is a physical property in rocks of extreme importance in energy engineering, civil and environmental engineering, and various areas of geology. Early on, fractures in fluid flow models were assumed to be rigid. However, experimental research and field data confirmed that stress-deformation behavior in fractures is a key factor governing their permeability tensor. Although extensive research was conducted in the past, the three-dimensional stress-permeability relationships, particularly in the inelastic deformation stage, still remain unclear. In this paper, laboratory experiments conducted on large concrete blocks with randomly distributed fractures and rock core samples are reported to investigate fluid flow and permeability variations under uniaxial, biaxial and triaxial complete stress-strain process. Experimental relationships among flowrate, permeability and fracture aperture in the fractured media are investigated. Results show that the flowrate and stress/aperture exhibit “cubic law” relationship for the randomly distributed fractures. A permeability-aperture relationship is proposed according to the experimental results. Based on this relationship, stress-dependent permeability in a set of fractures is derived in a three-dimensional domain by using a coupled stress and matrix-fracture interactive model. A double porosity finite element model is extended by incorporating such stress-dependent permeability effects. The proposed model is applied to examine permeability variations induced by stress redistributions for an inclined borehole excavated in a naturally fractured formation. The results indicate that permeability around underground openings depends strongly on stress changes and orientations of the natural fractures.     

Considerations on strength of intact sedimentary rocks

This study presents the results of laboratory testing of sedimentary rocks under point loading as well as in uniaxial and triaxial compression. From the statistical analysis of the data, different conversion factors relating uniaxial compressive and point loading strength were determined for soft to strong rocks. Additionally, the material constant m_i, an input parameter for the Hoek and Brown failure criterion, was also estimated for different limestone samples by analysing the results from a series of triaxial compression tests under different confining pressures. The uniaxial compressive strength (UCS) of intact rocks, as estimated from the point load index using conversion factors, together with the Hoek–Brown constant m_i, and the Geological Strength Index (GSI) constitute the parameters for the calculation of the strength and deformability of rock masses.     

Numerical modelling of heat shock-assisted rock fracture

This paper presents a numerical investigation on the effects of thermal shock as a pretreatment of rock prior to comminution. More specifically, the effect of heat shock-induced cracks on the uniaxial compressive strength of rock is numerically studied. The chosen constitutive model of rock employs a (strong) embedded discontinuity finite element formulation to describe cracks. The thermomechanical problem that governs the heat shock pretreatment of rocks is considered as an uncoupled problem because of a highly dominating role of the external heat influx. Two solution methods of the global problem are presented: an explicit-explicit dynamic scheme and an implicit-implicit quasi-static scheme. The model performance is tested in simulations on heterogeneous numerical rock samples subjected first to a heat shock pretreatment and then to a mechanical compression test. According to the results, the compressive strength of intact granite rock having the axial splitting failure mode can be substantially reduced by heat shock pretreatment.     

岩石细观结构对其变形强度影响的数值分析

利用数字图像处理技术表征岩石的非均匀性,并映射到有限元网格中,建立了能比较准确地反映岩石细观结构的数值模型。通过对花岗岩数字图像的处理,利用该模型进行花岗岩单轴压缩数值试验,研究花岗岩细观结构对其变形和强度的影响。研究表明,花岗岩细观结构对应力集中影响显著,在不同方向对花岗岩进行加载时,其抗压强度差异较大,表现出较强的各向异性行为,但对花岗岩弹性模量的影响很小。基于数字图像的数值分析方法为研究岩石细观力学性质提供了一种新的方法。     

Capturing the complete stress–strain behaviour of jointed rock using a numerical approach

This paper presents the results of a series of numerical experiments using the synthetic rock mass (SRM) approach to quantify the behaviour of jointed rock masses. Field data from a massive sulphide rock mass, at the Brunswick mine, were used to develop a discrete fracture network (DFN). The constructed DFN model was subsequently subjected to random sampling whereby 40 cubic samples, of height to width ratio of two, and of varying widths (0.05 to 10 m) were isolated. The discrete fracture samples were linked to 3D bonded particle models to generate representative SRM models for each sample size. This approach simulated the jointed rock mass as an assembly of fractures embedded into the rock matrix. The SRM samples were submitted to uniaxial loading, and the complete stress–strain behaviour of each specimen was recorded. This approach provided a way to determine the complex constitutive behaviour of large‐scale rock mass samples. This is often difficult or not possible to achieve in the laboratory. The numerical experiments suggested that higher post‐peak modulus values were obtained for smaller samples and lower values for larger sample sizes. Furthermore, the observed deviation of the recorded post‐peak modulus values decreased with sample size. The ratio of residual strength of rock mass samples per uniaxial compressive strength intact increases moderately with sample size. Consequently, for the investigated massive sulphide rock mass, the pre‐peak and post‐peak representative elemental volume size was found to be the same (7 × 7 × 14 m). Copyright © 2015 John Wiley & Sons, Ltd.     

围岩强度和变形参数的分布特征及可靠性分析

从康家湾铅锌金矿Ⅲ-1号矿体上盘围岩取大量岩样,分别加工制作了50个压缩和拉伸试验的试样。利用RMT-150B伺服试验系统对试样进行单轴抗压、抗拉试验,各获得了50个试验结果。采用假设检验法,分别对50个单轴抗压强度和50个抗拉强度进行检验,结果表明,它们分别服从正态分布和对数正态分布;对50个 、 和50个C、 ,进行不放回抽样,组成50组E、 、C、 。利用FLAC计算软件,对硐室围岩中的应力进行了计算,分别获得了50个最大主应力和50个最小主应力;采用同样假设检验法,证明它们分别服从对数正态和正态分布;根据单轴抗压、抗拉强度及围岩中的最大主应力、最小主应力概率密度函数,计算了硐室围岩不发生拉伸破坏和压缩破坏的可靠度;并对硐室围岩抗剪强度的校核,得出了该地下硐室围岩稳定的结论。     

The role of hydromechanical coupling in fractured rock engineering

This paper provides a review of hydromechanical (HM) couplings in fractured rock, with special emphasis on HM interactions as a result of, or directly connected with human activities. In the early 1960s, the coupling between hydraulic and mechanical processes in fractured rock started to receive wide attention. A series of events including dam failures, landslides, and injection-induced earthquakes were believed to result from HM interaction. Moreover, the advent of the computer technology in the 1970s made possible the integration of nonlinear processes such as stress–permeability coupling and rock mass failure into coupled HM analysis. Coupled HM analysis is currently being applied to many geological engineering practices. One key parameter in such analyses is a good estimate of the relationship between stress and permeability. Based on available laboratory and field data, it was found that the permeability of fractured rock masses tends to be most sensitive to stress changes at shallow depth (low stress) and in areas of low in-situ permeability. In highly permeable, fractured rock sections, fluid flow may take place in clusters of connected fractures which are locked open as a result of previous shear dislocation or partial cementation of hard mineral filling. Such locked-open fractures tend to be relatively insensitive to stress and may therefore be conductive at great depths. Because of the great variability of HM properties in fractured rock, and the difficulties in using laboratory data for deriving in-situ material properties, the HM properties of fractured rock masses are best characterized in situ. Electronic Publication     

不同温度条件下饱水风化花岗岩强度及变形特性分析

为研究温度和围压对风化花岗岩抗压强度、 剪切强度参数及变形特性的影响规律, 以新疆天山某一矿区的风化花岗岩为研究对象, 对不同温度（15、 -5、 -15 ℃）、 不同围压（0、 4、 7、 10 MPa）条件下的饱水风化花岗岩进行单轴和三轴压缩试验。结果表明： 相同温度条件下, 围压在0 ~ 10 MPa变化时, 风化花岗岩三轴抗压强度随围压线性增大。在相同围压下, 抗压强度随温度的降低而明显提高, 风化花岗岩的黏聚力c随温度降低而增大, 内摩擦角φ随温度的降低呈增长趋势。弹性模量随围压的增大不断提高, 但随着温度的降低, 增长幅度逐渐减小。泊松比也随温度降低和围压的增加呈增大趋势。温度和围压对风化花岗岩试样的破坏形态影响机制不同。温度降低使矿物颗粒及内部的微裂纹和间隙收缩, 进而胶结强度增大; 荷载和围压的增大会使岩石内部形成微裂隙并逐渐贯通, 同时孔隙冰破碎裂隙充分接触, 进一步增加摩擦力提高岩石强度。     

石质构件风化层内力学性能变化规律研究

石质构件风化层内力学参数随深度变化的规律是石质古建筑稳定性、耐久性和保护方案研究中重要的内容。本文针对古建筑石质构件风化层不便取样,风化岩样加工易破坏和室内试验只能得出试件整体的力学参数,不能反映风化层内力学参数由表及里逐渐变化的不足,综合运用现场声波测试和室内试验对义乌宋代古月桥(建于1213年)风化条石的抗压强度、弹性模量与深度的关系进行了研究。研究表明,风化层内岩石弹性模量、抗压强度与未风化区域的比值随深度呈较好的负指数关系。     

红层工程性质指标相关性研究

红层是我国南方分布广泛的白垩纪沉积软岩，大量试验数据分析表明，反映红层工程性质的一些重要物理力学指标间存在着较好的相关性，由于岩石结构的差异，不同地区红层的相关方程差异较大。通过对试验数据进行回归分析。建立了抚州市区红层的饱和重度与饱和单轴抗压强度、饱和单轴抗压强度与割性模量、三轴抗压强度与围压之间的相关方程，分析了现有点荷载试验强度与饱和单轴抗压强度相关方程对抚州红层的不适用性，并建立了相应的相关性明显的相关方程。