Elemental composition and mixing properties of atmospheric mineral particles collected in Hohhot,China

Aerosol particles were collected during the period from 23 to 28 April 1991 at Hohhot in the Inner Mongolia Autonomous Region of China, which is in an urban area located near one of the source areas of atmospheric mineral particles. The four samples were examined by a transmission electron microscope equipped with an energy-dispersive X-ray (EDX) analyzer to obtain the size and elemental composition of individual mineral particles.On the basis of EDX analyses for 385 particles, mineral particles were present in an extremely high number (98%) of particles in the radius range of 0.1–3 μm. Particles mainly composed of silicates comprised 70% of mineral particles. “Ca-rich” particles were detected in 18% of all the particles. Most of Ca would be present as CaCO₃, although the internal mixture of CaCO₃ and CaSO₄ was also found. Particles mainly composed of halite (NaCl) were present in low percentages of about 2% of mineral particles, and most of the particles were modified. The sample collected in the situation of weak wind contained spherical fly ash particles with about 13% of the particles analyzed. For the samples other than this sample, the grand abundance of mineral particles other than fly ash particles was larger than 98%.The hygroscopic properties of mineral particles were examined by the dialysis (extraction) of water-soluble material with distilled water. The sample collected in the situation of anthropogenic influence showed the presence of water-soluble material in mineral particles. On the basis of the EDX analysis and the water dialysis, it is suggested that the formation of CaSO₄ has occurred through chemical reactions of CaCO₃ in mineral particles with sulfuric acid in the atmosphere of Hohhot.     

庐山云雾水化学组分的某些特征

在庐山电视台采集的云雾水与同时段、同一地点采集的雨水相比,除Cl~-外各种离子浓度前者明显高些,pH值也较高。云雾水和地面同时段雨水相比较,云雾水中NO~-_3,SO~-_4,NH~+_4,Ca~(++),F~-及Mg~(++)等离子浓度也较高,但云雾水和雨水二者比值较小,云雾水的pH值也较高。云雾水中离子浓度和上风向污染源关系密切,其主要通过气溶胶的输送从而影响云雾水成份。有雨情况下云雾水中的离子浓度随时间推移而逐渐减少。     

The comparison of two severe Hwangsa (Asian dust) cases of spring and winter in Seoul, Korea

This study investigated meteorological, physical, and chemical characteristics of 2 severe Hwangsa (Asian dust, maximum average of PM₁₀ above 1000 μg m^?3) observed in Seoul, the capital city of Korea, during 30～31^st May, 2008 (DSS2008) and 25～26^th December, 2009 (DSS2009). DSS2008 and DSS2009 had a same source region and route. However, they have different meteorological conditions. DSS2009 had a shorter travel time from the source region to Korea and shorter duration time in Korea than DSS2008 due to a strong winter Siberian anticyclone. One of DSS2008 sample was affected by not only Asian dust but also a long-range transported haze due to consecutive influx after low pressure passed while DSS2009 sample collected only dust aerosol. For both cases, the mass concentration of coarse particles (PM_10-1) increased by 3～14 times compared to that during non Asian dust period, however, that of fine particles (PM₁) increased only in DSS2008. For DSS2008 water-soluble ion balance between anions and cations in fine mode was close to 1:1 while cations were higher than anions in coarse mode. NH₄ ⁺ and Ca²⁺ were found to be the main contributing factors for the neutralization. Cl^? loss was observed about 60% indicating an active interaction of Na⁺ with pollutants. Reconstruction of chemical compositions showed relatively high concentrations of secondary pollutants (NH₄NO₃ and (NH₄)₂SO₄), CaCO₃, and Ca(NO₃)₂ compared to that during non Asian dust period. DSS2009 exhibited the typical characteristics of Asian dust having a high concentration of Ca²⁺ with higher equivalent concentration of cations than anions in all size bins. Cl^? loss was hardly observed. The secondary pollutants were lower than that of non Asian dust cases. The result of reconstruction of ionic components indicated the CaCO₃ derived from soil particle, CaSO₄, and Ca (NO₃)₂ were dominant in DSS2009.     

广东“5.24”暴雨的湿有效能量分析

利用海峡两岸及邻近地区暴雨试验期间的时间加密观测资料,分析了1998年5月24日发生在广东省的一次暴雨过程。发现湿有效能量与此次暴雨降水的关系比较清楚。降水开始前,暴雨区的能量显著增加,强降水开始于能量显著减少时;强降水时,暴雨区的能量出现小幅反弹;当暴雨区能量再次显著减少后暴雨降水结束;这是一次能量锋暴雨,暴雨开始前有能量锋生现象发生,暴雨强降水时段与强能量锋同步,暴雨区位于高能舌北侧能量锋附近。     

MEASUREMENT OF pH AND CHEMICAL ANALYSIS OF RAIN WATER IN RURAL AREA OF INDIA

Large number of rain water samples, at 7 rural locations in the semi-arid region of the DeccanPlateau were collected during 4 consecutive monsoon seasons (1979-1982).pH, conductivityand the major ionic components (C1~-, SO_4~= , NO_3~- , NH_4~+ , Na~+, K~+, Ca~(++), Mg~(++) of the abovesamples were determined. The pH of rain water was found to be highly alkaline and the valuesvaried from 6.4 to 7.8. Soil-oriented elements showed good correltioan (r~0.6) with pH valuesof rain water. The high concentration of soil-oriented elements, specially Ca~(++), is found to play animportant role in neutralizing the acidity of rain water and maintaining high alkaline pH. The studysuggested that the contribution of atmospheric aerosol of natural sources (sea and soil) to thechemical composition of rain water is more than that of anthropogenic origin.     

Chemical composition of rain water and influence of airmass trajectories at a rural site in an ecological sensitive area of Western Ghats (India)

Samples of rain water were collected during monsoon season (June to September) of 2006 and 2007 at Hudegadde, a rural site located in an ecological sensitive area of Western Ghats. The collected samples were analyzed for pH, conductivity and major ions. At this site, rainwater pH varied from 4.20 to 7.39 with 5.65 as volume weighed mean. The observed mean was slightly lower than the average pH reported at most of the Indian continental sites. Monthly variation showed that average pH of rain water was the lowest during September (end of monsoon) and the highest during July (peak of monsoon). Overall, marine sources had dominating influence at this site. However, significant influence of anthropogenic and crustal sources from local as well as inter-continental regions was also noticed. As compared to NO₃⁻, higher concentration of SO₄²⁻ was noticed which might be due to contribution from industrial activities responsible for SO₂ emission. At this site, influence of five types of airmass trajectories was noticed i.e. i) C.I.O. (Central part of Indian Ocean)-when air masses blown from Maldives and nearby region of central Indian ocean. These airmasses had higher concentrations of nss Ca²⁺ which did not show any adverse impact on the pH; ii) N.W.I.O.(North-West Indian Ocean)-when airmasses travelled from oceanic region close to north-east Africa. These airmassses had higher concentrations of nss sulphate and nitrate and gave rise to acid rain; iii) S.W.I.O. (South -West Indian Ocean)- when airmasses came from southern part of Indian ocean (close to Mauritius). During these airmasses, rain water samples had almost equal ratio of nss SO₄²⁻ and nss Ca²⁺ similar to N.W.I.O but very low NO₃⁻ ; iv) Gulf-when airmasses were observed coming from Gulf region. Although these airmasses contributed only 2% of the total number of samples but carried high amount of nss SO₄²⁻ which gave rise to acid rain. The second lowest pH was observed during these airmasses which might be due to very high nssSO₄²⁻/nssCa²⁺ ratios; v) N.W.I.O. + S.W.I.C. (North-West Indian Ocean+South-West Indian Continental)- when airmasses originated from north-west Indian Ocean travelling towards south continental part of India and then arriving to the site. During these airmasses, samples showed typical influence of urban activities having high concentrations of nss SO₄²⁻ and NO₃⁻ leading to the lowest pH of rain water.     

Dew and rain water collection in the Dalmatian Coast, Croatia

Passive dew harvesting and rainwater collection requires a very small financial investment but can exploit a free, clean (outside urban/industrial zones) and inexhaustible source of water. This study investigates the relative contributions of dew and rain water in the Mediterranean Dalmatian coast and islands of Croatia, with emphasis on the dry summer season. In addition, we evaluate the utility of transforming abandoned roof rain collectors (“impluviums”) to collect dew water too. Two sites were chosen, an exposed open site on the coast favourable to dew formation (Zadar) and a less favourable site in a cirque of mountains in Komiža (Vis Island). Between July 1, 2003 and October 31, 2006, dew was collected two or three times per day on a 1 m² inclined (30°) test dew condenser, together with standard meteorological data (air temperature and relative humidity, cloud cover, windspeed and direction). Maximum yields were 0.41 mm in Zadar and 0.6 mm in Komiža. The mean yearly cumulative dew yields were found to be 20 mm (Zadar) and 9.3 mm (Komiža). Because of its physical setting, Komiža represents a poor location for dew collection. However, during the dry season (May to October), monthly cumulative dew water yield can represent up to 38% of water collected by rainfall. In both July 2003 and 2006, dew water represented about 120% of the monthly cumulative rain water. Refurbishing the abandoned impluviums to permit dew collection could then provide useful supplementary water, especially during the dry season. As an example, the 1300 m² impluvium at Podšpilje near Komiža could provide, in addition to rain water, 14,000 L dew water per year.     

Studies on Intercorrelation between Ions Co-Occurring in Precipitation in the Gdańsk-Sopot-Gdynia Tricity (Poland)

The paper presents monitoring results and environmental pollution assessment for the Gdask-Sopot-Gdynia Tricity (Poland), based onanalysis of precipitation. Precipitation samples were collected over a period of 12 months (January–December 1998) at ten locations in the Tricity. The following selected ions were determined in the samples:SO₄ ^2–, F^–, Cl^–, NO₃ ^–,PO₄ ^3–, NH₄ ⁺, Na⁺,Mg²⁺, Ca²⁺, K⁺. The results were subjected to full statistical evaluation. Values of the parameters determined were correlated with each other. An attempt was made to explain co-occurrences of certain ions and the significance of their mutual effects. Pollutant concentrations and loads in precipitation were also correlated with data on wind direction and temperature in the region.Deposition of pollutants was very high in spring due to the prevailing air circulation patterns and low temperatures. Analysis of the correlations between co-occurring ions confirmed the significant impact of the location (sea coast) on the composition of rain water. Ionic ratios in rainwater were similar to those observed for sea salt samples. In addition, heavy traffic was most probably responsible for high concentrations of various forms of nitrogen and sulphates in the vicinity of major highways.     

2009 年我国汛期降水形势总结与三个常用模式预报效果检验

利用实况24小时降水、形势场资料及T213、T639、Japan模式降水、形势场的预报资料,对2009年汛期(5-9月,下同)中国降水时空分布进行分析,并对T213、T639、Japan三个常用模式对2009年汛期的天气形势、降水及其影响系统的预报做主客观检验,以期得出2009年汛期降水分布特点及三个模式的降水预报效果对比.结果表明:(1) 2009年汛期华南地区降水量为全国之最,长江中下游和西南东部地区其次,东北和华北地区再次.(2)从TS评分看,Japan模式的小雨～大雨量级评分较高,T639模式暴雨～大暴雨量级评分较高；T213模式对华北地区暴雨、大暴雨量级降水预报评分高于Japan和T639模式.(3)从降水预报偏差看,T213模式对华北预报明显偏强,T639模式对华北预报强度较为适中,两模式对其他区域中等以下强度降水预报偏强,对强降水预报偏弱；T639对中等以下强度降水预报偏强程度明显小于T213,而对强降水除华南和东北区域外,预报偏弱程度明显大于T213；Japan模式预报偏差随降水量级增大而减小,对大雨以上各量级预报均明显偏弱,且偏弱程度明显大于T213、 T639.(4)由代表性形势场预报检验结果可知,除T213对500hPa高度场、850hPa温度场预报效果好于其他两模式外,各模式预报效果相差不大.(5)三个模式对500 hPa副高总体预报偏东、偏北、偏强,但Japan预报效果明显好于T213、T639.(6) T639模式对台风和低涡的预报相对较好,T213较差.     

Dew water collector for potable water in Ajaccio (Corsica Island, France)

We report on the development of an inexpensive radiative condenser for collecting atmospheric vapor. Based on the experience gained using a small working model in Grenoble (France), a prototype of 10×3 m² was established in Ajaccio (Corsica, France). The condensing surface is a rectangular foil made of TiO₂ and BaSO₄ microspheres embedded in polyethylene and has an angle of 30° with respect to horizontal. The hollow part of the device, thermally isolated, faces the direction of the dominant nocturnal wind. Dew measurements were correlated with meteorological data and compared to dew condensed on a horizontal polymethylmethacrylate (PMMA, Plexiglas) reference plate. The plate served as a reference standard unit and was located nearby. Between July 22, 2000 and November 11, 2001 (478 days), there were 145 dew days for the reference plate (30%), but 214 dew days for the condenser (45%). This yield corresponds to 767 l (3.6 l, on average, per dew day). The maximum yield in the period was 11.4 l/day. Dew mass can be fitted to a simple model that predicts dew production from simple meteorological data (temperature, humidity, wind velocity, cloud cover). Chemical analyses of the water collected from the plate were performed from October 16, 1999 to July 16, 2000 and from the condenser, from July 17, 2000 to March 17, 2001. The following parameters were investigated: suspended solids, pH, concentration of SO₄²⁻, Cl⁻, K⁺, Ca²⁺ ions. Only Cl⁻ and SO₄²⁻ ions were sometimes found significant. Wind direction analyses revealed that Cl⁻ is due to the sea spray and SO₄²⁻ to the combustion of fuel by an electrical plant located in the Ajaccio Gulf. Except for a weak acidity (average pH≈6) and high concentration of suspended solids, dew water fits the requirements for potable water in France with reference to the above ions.     

不同降水强度对PM2.5的清除作用及影响因素

云和降水过程是大气污染物的重要清除途径,但由于降水过程和大气污染颗粒物本身的复杂性,目前降水过程对大气污染物的清除机制及影响因素有待深入研究。该文利用2014年3月—2016年7月在北京地区连续观测的PM_2.5和降水数据,研究了不同降水强度对PM_2.5的清除率,以及雨滴谱、风速和降水持续时间对PM_2.5清除率的影响。研究表明:降水强度越大,对PM_2.5清除效率越高。小雨、中雨和大雨对PM_2.5清除率平均值分别为5.1%,38.5%和50.6%。小雨不但对PM_2.5的清除率最低,而且对PM_2.5的清除效果也存在很大差异,约50%的小雨个例中PM_2.5质量浓度出现减小情况,而另外50%的小雨个例中,PM_2.5质量浓度出现增加情况。在持续时间长或地面风速增大的情况下,小雨也表现出较高的清除率。在中雨和大雨情况下,PM_2.5质量浓度均出现明显减小情况。但降水持续时间和风速对中雨和大雨的清除率影响较小,这是由于中雨和大雨一般在较短时间内即可清除大部分PM_2.5,因此,对降水的持续时间和风速大小不敏感。     

In-cloud and below-cloud scavenging of aerosol ionic species over a tropical rural atmosphere in India

The temporal variation in concentrations of major water soluble ionic species has been studied from several rain events occurred over Gadanki (13.5 °N, 79.2 °E), located in tropical semi arid region in southern India. The contribution from rain-out (in cloud) and wash-out (below cloud) processes to the total removal of ionic species by rain events is also estimated using the pattern of variations of ionic species within an individual event. A number of rain samples were collected from each rain event during June–November in 2006, 2007 and 2008. On average, nearly 20% of the total NH ₄ ⁺ and non-sea SO ₄ ^2? is removed by in-cloud scavenging, suggesting that their removal by “below cloud” washout is relatively dominant. In contrast Na⁺, Ca²⁺, Mg²⁺, NO ₃ ^? and sea-SO ₄ ^2? are mainly removed by below-cloud scavenging or wash-out process. A significant variation in the acidity was observed within rain events with successive precipitation showing higher acidity at the final stage of the precipitation due to partial neutralization of non-sea SO ₄ ^2? . Overall, greater influence of both terrestrial and anthropogenic sources is recorded in the rain events compared to that from marine sources.     

Impact of a dust storm on characteristics of particle matter (PM) in Guangzhou, China

A strong dust-storm (23–25 April, 2009) occurred in the provinces of Inner Mongolia, Gansu, and Shanxi, North China. Cities along the storm path (from north to south: Xi’ning, Lanzhou, Chengdu, Changsha, and Guangzhou) all experienced a sharp increase in particle matter (PM₁₀) concentration. This is the first case that an Asian dust storm hit Guangzhou in Southern China. The impacts of dust storm on the characteristics of PM were investigated using samples collected in Guangzhou during 27–29 April, 2009. In addition, the mass concentration and chemical composition during a normal non-dust period (12–14 May, 2009) were compared with those in dust period. The results show that the concentration of PM₁₀ during the dust episode (0.231 mg m^?3) was twice higher than that in the non-dust episode (0.103 mg m^?3). Chemical analysis showed that concentrations of metal elements, enrichment factors of metal elements, and soluble ions during the dust episode were very different from those of non-dust. The total concentration of metal elements content in PM₁₀ was 53.5 μg m^?3 in the dust episode, which is about two times higher than that in non-dust episode (28.5 μg m^?3). Increases in concentrations of Na, Ti, Zn, Cu, and Cr ranged from zero to 100% during the dust episode. However, the enrichment factors in non-dust episode were higher than that in dust-storm period, indicating that the above five chemicals originated mainly from local sources in Guangzhou. The concentrations of K, Mg, Al, Fe, Mn, V, and Co increased by over 100% in the dust episode, indicating their origins of remote sources. In the dust period, some water-soluble ions increased in PM₁₀, but the main components in PM₁₀ were SO₄ ^?, NO₃ ^? and NH₄ ⁺. At last, we assessed the sources of dusts by analyzing synoptic situation and back trajectories of air mass in Guangzhou, and demonstrated that the main source of the dust storm was from Mongolia.     

Trend in chemical composition of precipitation during 2005–2009 at a rural station of Bhubaneswar, eastern India

Precipitation samples collected during 2005–2009 from a rural forest station of Bhubaneswar were analyzed for their chemical composition. The samples were collected through a wet-only (WO) collector and two bulk (B1 and B2) collectors. The ions were evenly balanced indicating good data quality. The overall pH of rainwater was slightly acidic and ~47% of all rain events during the period were acidic (pH?<?5.6). Multilinear regression analysis showed relation between the free acidity (H⁺) and other components in rainwater. Enrichment factors (EF) of the major components with respect to their sources such as marine and crustal were calculated. Maximum EF was observed for NO ₃ ^? for both marine and crustal sources for all the three collectors. Source apportionments were also carried for the ions. Trend analysis showed continuous increase in most of the ions over years during the study period driven by anthropogenic emissions. Statistical/factorial analysis established correlation among different ions.     

暴雨中尺度环境场特征及积云对流的反馈作用

本文利用一套具有中尺度分辨率的观测资料,对发生在1983年6月下旬的一次长江流域梅雨暴雨过程进行了诊断研究,并比较了该过程的对流降水活跃期和非活跃期的中尺度环境场特征。结果表明,两个时期的动量场存在明显差异,而水热场差异不大,Q₁和Q₂以及涡度收支也存在明显差异。在降水活跃期（暴雨集中期）,积云对流对能量和涡度的垂直输送有着重要作用;在水热收支中,起主要作用的是垂直输送项,潜热加热基本上为抬升冷却所平衡,水汽的垂直输送是积云对流的主要水汽源;在涡度收支中,低层散度项和扭转项制造正涡度,并通过积云对流向上输送,无论在低层或高层积累的正涡度都被平流非线性过程所耗损。      

Chemical character of precipitation and related particles and trace gases in the North and South of China

Rainwater samples were collected at four sites, including Beijing and Mazhuang Town in the north of China, Shenzhen and Mangdang Mountain in the south of China. Character of atmospheric particles and gases were also measured at Mazhuang Town and Mangdang Mountain. Both of Beijing and Shenzhen are urban sites; Mazhuang Town and Mangdang Mountain are rural and remote sites respectively. The atmospheric pollution at rural plain site in the north of China was more serious than that at remote mountain site in the south of China. At Beijing, Mazhuang Town, Shenzhen and Mangdang Mountain the average pH values in rainwater were 6.02, 5.97, 4.72 and 4.81, respectively and the concentrations of total ions in rainwater were 1454, 1125, 187 and 191 μeq/l, respectively. While the acidity of the rain was higher in the south than that in the north, the rainwater in the north of China was more severely polluted than that in the south. The major acidic ion in the rainwater is SO₄^2-, and NH₄⁺ is the most important neutralizing ion in rainwater at the four sites, followed by Ca²⁺. The amounts of organic acid in precipitation were compared with other sites in the world. The ratios of organic acid to total free acid in rainwater at Mangdang Mountain was 13.8% and the influence of organic acid on acidity of rainwater at mountain site in the south of China is more important. The variation of atmospheric particles, gases and components in rainwater and cloud-fog water during special rain and cloud-fog events was discussed. The importance of washout process varied with atmospheric species. The impacts of rainfall, rain duration time and wind speed on wash-out process were estimated by regression analysis.     

1991年江淮特大暴雨的降水性质与对流活动

从计算大尺度热源和分析ＴＢＢ资料两个方面，阐述了１９９１年江淮梅雨期间降水性质与对流活动的季节性演变特征。结果表明：梅雨期间江淮上空３个强上升运动时段分别形成了３场暴雨，由暴雨释放的热量使江淮大气出现了３个时段的强加热；３场暴雨的降水性质呈显著的季节性演变，由第１场暴雨以锋面性降水为主发展到第３场暴雨异常强的对流性降水。文中详细分析了热源和水汽汇的时空分布特征，并从大气运动场和热力结构讨论了盛夏强对流降水期间积云对流以涡动形式对热量和水汽的强铅直输送作用。江淮地区ＴＢＢ值能很好地反映降水状况，雨期一致地对应于ＴＢＢ低于２５０Ｋ的时段。梅雨中后期东亚地区对流活动季节性地增强，带状对流区（特别是ＴＢＢ高负距平区）与雨带位置相符。对流带位置及对流活动强弱与西南暖湿气流活动密切相关，它很好地表征了东亚地区的低空急流（给积云输送热带对流大气）。梅雨期间对流带主要出现在江淮流域，但可在东亚范围内飘移，它落在江淮与否则决定了江淮暴雨的维持与中断     

A Long Term Study on Chemical Composition of Rainwater at Dayalbagh, a Suburban Site of Semiarid Region

Rainwater samples were collected for the monsoon period of 1988 and 1991–1996 at Dayalbagh (Agra), a suburban site situated in semiaridregion. The mean pH was 7.01 ±1.03 well above 5.6, which is the reference pH. Concentration of Ca²⁺ was observed to be highest followed by Mg²⁺, NH₄ ⁺,SO₄ ^2–, Cl^–,NO₃ ^–, Na⁺, F^– and K⁺. The ratios of SO₄ ^2– + NO₃ ^– andCa²⁺ + Mg²⁺ (TA/TC) have been considered as indicatorfor acidity. In the Agra region ratio of TA/TC is quite below 1.0 indicating alkaline nature of rainwater. The lowest value of 0.24 was observed in 1991 likely due to the lowest rain depth of the decade. The highest value of 0.54 was observed in 1996, a year with a large rain depth and increase in line (vehicular traffic) and area sources (population growth). Good correlation between Ca²⁺ and NO₃ ^–,Ca²⁺ and SO₄ ^2– andSO₄ ^2– and NO₃ ^–,indicates that wind carried dust and soil play a significant role in neutralization of precipitation acidity.     

Evolution of the fogwater composition in Strasbourg (France) from 1990 to 1999

The chemical composition of fogwater has been studied in the city of Strasbourg (France) from 1990 to 1999. During these years, fogwater samples have been collected and analysed for major ions and trace metals. This paper reports on the analysis of the collected dataset. The analysis revealed a significant decrease in acidity of approximately one pH unit over the course of the study. This decrease in acidity appears to be linked to a decrease in SO_2(g) and the resulting SO₄²⁻. Trace metal concentrations have also strongly decreased over the 10-year period. Pb concentrations, following the elimination of leaded gasoline, decreased by more than one order of magnitude.     

The chemical composition of rainwater over Büyükçekmece Lake, Istanbul

In the present study, the precipitation near Büyükçekmece Lake, which is one of the important drinking water sources of Istanbul city, was studied during October 2001–July 2002. Seventy-nine bulk precipitation samples were collected at two sampling stations near the Lake (41°2′35″N, 28°35′25″E and 41°5′30″N, 28°37′7″E). The study comprised the determination of H⁺, Cl⁻, NO₃⁻, SO₄²⁻, NH₄⁺, Na, K, Mg, Ca, Al, Ba, Fe, Cu and Mn concentrations in bulk deposition rain event samples. The average volume-weighted pH value was found to be 4.81, which points out that the rain is slightly acidic. High sulfate concentrations were observed together with high H⁺ ion values. Sulfur emissions were the major cause for the observed high hydrogen ion levels. On the basis of factor analysis and correlation matrix analysis, it has been found that in this region, acid neutralization is brought about by calcium rather than the ammonium ion. The varimax rotated factor analysis grouped the variables into four factors, which are crustal, marine and two anthropogenic sources.