A parametric study of robustness of kriging variance as a function of range and relative nugget effect for a spherical semivariogram

In geostatistics, an estimation of blocks of a deposit is reported along with the variance of error made in their estimation. This calculation is based on the model chosen for the semivariogram of the deposit so that mistakes in its estimation can manifest themselves in the perception of accuracy with which blocks are known. Changes in kriging variance resulting from various amounts of error in modeling the relative nugget effect and range of the semivariogram are investigated for an extensive set of spherical semivariograms.     

Estimation of semivariogram parameters and evaluation of the effects of data sparsity

Semivariogram parameters are estimated by a weighted least-squares method and a jackknife kriging method. The weighted least-squares method is investigated by differing the lag increment and maximum lag used in the fit. The jackknife kriging method minimizes the variance of the jackknifing error as a function of semivariogram parameters. The effects of data sparsity and the presence of a trend are investigated by using 400-, 200-, and 100-point synthetic data sets. When the two methods yield significantly different results, more data may be needed to determine reliably the semivariogram parameters, or a trend may be present in the data.     

Cumulative semivariogram models of regionalized variables

The cumulative semivariogram approach is proposed for modeling regionalized variables in the geological sciences. This semivariogram is defined as the successive summation of half-squared differences which are ranked according to the ascending order of distances extracted from all possible pairs of sample locations within a region. This procedure is useful especially when sampling points are irregularly distributed within the study area. Cumulative semivariograms possess all of the objective properties of classical semivariograms. Classical semivariogram models are evaluated on the basis of the cumulative semivariogram methodology. Model parameter estimation procedures are simplified with the use of arithmetic, semilogarithmic, or double-logarithmic papers. Plots of cumulative semivariogram values vs. corresponding distances may scatter along a straight line on one of these papers, which facilitates model identification as well as parameter estimation. Straight lines are fitted to the cumulative semivariogram scatter diagram by classical linear regression analysis. Finally, applications of the methodology are presented for some groundwater data recorded in the sedimentary basins of the Kingdom of Saudi Arabia.     

The integral of the semivariogram: A powerful method for adjusting the semivariogram in geostatistics

A good fining of the structural junction that describes the variability of a spatial phenomenon is an essential stage in the building of an accurate estimator by kriging. The technique of the integral of the semivariogram (ISV) makes it possible to find this structural function while overcoming the problem of grouping together the pairs of experimental points into classes of distances when the data are not sampled on a regular grid. The ISV is particularly useful when the dispersion of the values of the classical Semivariogram (SV) makes it difficult to fit a model. Since the ISV is composed of a large number of values, it is more continuous than a SV and therefore easier to fit analytically. In fact, when the general shape of the SV is known, the ISV method proves its worth in finding the parameters that best fit a given variogram model. The analytical models of ISV which will be used, are the integral expressions of the traditional analytical SV. In this paper and on the basis of hydrogeological examples, we propose a method to adjust all the parameters of each model. The first derivative of a filled ISV, used in the kriging equations, appears to be systematically the best SV for a cross-validation on the data. This is why we think that the ISV technique should be used when the strong spatial variability of a parameter spreads out the values of the experimental SV.     

Two-dimensional simulation by turning bands

Journel (1974) developed the turning-bands method which allows a three-dimensional data set with specified covariance to be obtained by the simulation of several one-dimensional realizations which have an intermediate covariance. The relationship between the threedimensional and one-dimensional covariance is straightforward and allows the one-dimensional covariance to be obtained immediately. In theory a dense uniform distribution of lines in three-dimensional space is required along which the one-dimensional realizations are generated; in practice most workers have been content to use the fifteen axes of the regular icosahedron. Many mining problems may be treated in two dimensions, and in this paper a turning-bands approach is developed to generate two-dimensional data sets with a specified covariance. By working in two dimensions, the area on which the data is simulated may be divided as finely as desired by the lines on which the one-dimensional realizations are first generated. The relationship between the two-dimensional and one-dimensional covariance is derived as a nontrivial integral equation. This is solved analytically for the onedimensional covariance. The method is applied to the generation of a two-dimensional data set with spherical covariance.     

直线型海洋重力仪负漂移原因分析及处理

分析了直线型KSS31M(SN035)海洋重力仪短期负漂移现象的原因、采取的处理措施和经验总结,认为在减震措施不足的情况下,重力仪长期经受震动,而频繁的搬动会使重力仪弹性系统中的金属弹簧产生较大的弹性疲劳,这种影响在短时间内无法完全消除,由此可能导致月漂移超标;陀螺稳定平台轴因承受震动磨损较严重,轴承间隙变大,导致安装在平台之上的重力传感器经过抛物线测试之后不能完全垂直指向地心,重力在水平方向存在一个微小的分量,最终导致重力读数偏小,即短期负漂移;重力基点环境的变化等对漂移也有一定的影响。建议在搬动重力仪后将仪器保持足够长时间的恒温后再开机,密切监测一段时间,以确保仪器处于良好的工作状态。     

Efficiency of kriging estimation for square, triangular, and hexagonal grids

Although several researchers have pointed out some advantages and disadvantages of various soil sampling designs in the presence of spatial autocorrelation, a more detailed study is presented herein which examines the geometrical relationship of three sampling designs, namely the square, the equilateral triangle, and the regular hexagon. Both advantages and disadvantages exist in the use of these designs with respect to estimation of the semivariogram and their effect on the mean square error or variance of error. This research could be used to design optimal sampling strategies; it is based on the theory of regionalized variables, in which the intrinsic hypothesis is satisfied. Among alternative designs, an equilateral triangle design gives the most reliable estimate of the semivariogram. It also gives the minimum maximum mean square error of point estimation of the concentration over the other two designs for the same number of measurements when the nugget effect is small relative to the variance. If the nugget effect is large (.90 ² or more), and the linear sampling density is >0.85r where r is the range, the hexagonal design is best. This study computes and compares the maximum mean square error for each of these designs.     

岩石圈板块漂移引起岩石古剩磁偏角变化规律

依据古地磁基本原理,结合岩石圈板块在地球表面的欧拉旋转,通过赤平投影作图,探讨了岩石圈板块漂移引起古剩磁偏角的变化规律,得出古剩磁偏角的变化与岩石圈板块所处的半球、欧拉极所处的区间以及岩石圈板块东西向运动分量相关,在现今地理坐标下的古剩磁偏角是地质历史时期岩石圈板块多期活动引起古剩磁偏角变化的综合结果。由于欧拉极主要分布在绝对占优的两个区间,因此,岩石圈板块运动主要是欧拉极分布在这两个区间的旋转运动,而当欧拉极分布在这两个区间且当岩石圈板块所处的半球的东西向运动分量方向相同时,古剩磁偏角的变化规律较一致。进而可依据欧拉极分布在这两个区间岩石圈板块旋转引起古剩磁偏角变化规律,结合相邻两个时代形成的岩石古剩磁偏角和倾角之差,以及相对较老岩石形成时所处的半球,可定性确定岩石圈板块在这一地质历史时期的运动方向,为构造应力场演化提供一定的依据,使古地磁数据在大地构造研究中发挥出更大作用。     

A Cretaceous carbonate delta drift in the Montagna della Maiella,Italy

The Upper Cretaceous (Campanian–Maastrichtian) bioclastic wedge of the Orfento Formation in the Montagna della Maiella, Italy, is compared to newly discovered contourite drifts in the Maldives. Like the drift deposits in the Maldives, the Orfento Formation fills a channel and builds a Miocene delta‐shaped and mounded sedimentary body in the basin that is similar in size to the approximately 350 km² large coarse‐grained bioclastic Miocene delta drifts in the Maldives. The composition of the bioclastic wedge of the Orfento Formation is also exclusively bioclastic debris sourced from the shallow‐water areas and reworked clasts of the Orfento Formation itself. In the near mud‐free succession, age‐diagnostic fossils are sparse. The depositional textures vary from wackestone to float‐rudstone and breccia/conglomerates, but rocks with grainstone and rudstone textures are the most common facies. In the channel, lensoid convex‐upward breccias, cross‐cutting channelized beds and thick grainstone lobes with abundant scours indicate alternating erosion and deposition from a high‐energy current. In the basin, the mounded sedimentary body contains lobes with a divergent progradational geometry. The lobes are built by decametre thick composite megabeds consisting of sigmoidal clinoforms that typically have a channelized topset, a grainy foreset and a fine‐grained bottomset with abundant irregular angular clasts. Up to 30 m thick channels filled with intraformational breccias and coarse grainstones pinch out downslope between the megabeds. In the distal portion of the wedge, stacked grainstone beds with foresets and reworked intraclasts document continuous sediment reworking and migration. The bioclastic wedge of the Orfento Formation has been variously interpreted as a succession of sea‐level controlled slope deposits, a shoaling shoreface complex, or a carbonate tidal delta. Current‐controlled delta drifts in the Maldives, however, offer a new interpretation because of their similarity in architecture and composition. These similarities include: (i) a feeder channel opening into the basin; (ii) an excavation moat at the exit of the channel; (iii) an overall mounded geometry with an apex that is in shallower water depth than the source channel; (iv) progradation of stacked lobes; (v) channels that pinch out in a basinward direction; and (vi) smaller channelized intervals that are arranged in a radial pattern. As a result, the Upper Cretaceous (Campanian–Maastrichtian) bioclastic wedge of the Orfento Formation in the Montagna della Maiella, Italy, is here interpreted as a carbonate delta drift.     

印度大陆板块北漂的动力机制研究

印度大陆板块是一个活化的克拉通板块,其向北漂移并与欧亚板块碰撞过程得到了广泛研究,但其北漂的动力机制则很少被关注。传统上认为是海底扩张造成了印度大陆板块的北漂,但最新的地球物理观测结果却与此相悖。基于地磁场异常特征、古地磁测量和地震勘探剖面等诸多证据的系统分析研究,结果表明印度大陆板块厚度大约40 km,其北漂的动力机制与印度板块南侧深部的岩浆上涌密切相关,大陆板块的漂移是自发驱动的。通过新建立的大陆漂移模型可以合理解释印度大陆板块漂移的动力来源,并合理地解释了印度大陆板块北漂中伴随左旋的深层次动力机制。最后探讨了印度大陆板块在80~40 Ma期间异常高速漂移的根源和东非大裂谷的成因。本研究为大陆漂移模式提供了一个新的动力机制。     

时域漂移的泛克里格模型

将地质统计学中的泛克里格模型的漂移在时间域上进行计算, 在满足无偏性估计要求的条件下, 得到泛克里格模型的一种新形式。与原模型比较, 所得模型能够体现数据的时空特性, 并且模型形式得到简化。该模型适用于具有长期观测资料, 同时观测位置相对固定的估计和预测问题。     

Effect of filtering on drift and anisotropy parameters determined by full correlation analysis

The effect of low-pass filtering on the various drift and anisotropy parameters obtained by full correlation analysis of spaced receiver records is studied theoretically, assuming Gaussian correlation functions. A decrease in the characteristic velocityV _cis shown with increasing filtering, unlessV ≫ V _v, whenV _cincreases with filtering. The ratioV _c/V however shows an increase as the decrease in the true drift velocityV is steeper thanV _c. An increase in the size of the ground pattern with increasing filtering is also shown, while the axial ratio for anisotropic patterns shows a decrease. The results are verified with experimental data recorded earlier at Tiruchirapalli.     

规则波导斯托克斯漂移对污染物输移的影响

为研究斯托克斯漂移对近岸污染物输移的影响,首先建立波导流和考虑斯托克斯漂移的对流扩散数值模型,通过数模结果与实验结果的比较,研究平直斜坡地形下规则波入射时斯托克斯漂移对污染物输移的影响,波导流模型中波浪场基于波能守恒方程来模拟,波导流场基于Longuet-Higgins提出的辐射应力来模拟,污染物对流扩散模型考虑了斯托克斯漂移的影响。其次,利用一个算例来验证对流扩散模型,结果表明数值模型计算结果与解析解吻合良好。最后,利用该模型模拟了两个实验工况下污染物的输移,数值模拟结果与实验结果吻合良好,表明斯托克斯漂移对近岸污染物向岸线方向的输移有比较明显的影响。     

The westward lithospheric drift,its role on the subduction and transform zones surrounding Americas:Andean to cordilleran orogenic types cyclicity

We investigate the effect of the westerly rotation of the lithosphere on the active margins that surround the Americas and find good correlations between the inferred easterly-directed mantle counterflow and the main structural grain and kinematics of the Andes and Sandwich arc slabs.In the Andes,the subduction zone is shallow and with low dip,because the mantle flow sustains the slab;the subduction hinge converges relative to the upper plate and generates an uplifting doubly verging orogen.The Sandwich Arc is generated by a westerly-directed SAM(South American) plate subduction where the eastward mantle flow is steepening and retreating the subduction zone.In this context,the slab hinge is retreating relative to the upper plate,generating the backarc basin and a low bathymetry single-verging accretionary prism.In Central America,the Caribbean plate presents a more complex scenario:(a) To the East,the Antilles Arc is generated by westerly directed subduction of the SAM plate,where the eastward mantle flow is steepening and retreating the subduction zone.(b) To the West,the Middle America Trench and Arc are generated by the easterly-directed subduction of the Cocos plate,where the shallow subduction caused by eastward mantle flow in its northern segment gradually steepens to the southern segment as it is infered by the preexisting westerly-directed subduction of the Caribbean Plateau.In the frame of the westerly lithospheric flow,the subduction of a divergent active ridge plays the role of introducing a change in the oceanic/continental plate's convergence angle,such as in NAM(North American)plate with the collision with the Pacific/Farallon active ridge in the Neogene(Cordilleran orogenic type scenario).The easterly mantle drift sustains strong plate coupling along NAM,showing at Juan de Fuca easterly subducting microplate that the subduction hinge advances relative to the upper plate.This lower/upper plate convergence coupling also applies along strike to the neighbor continental strike slip fault systems where subduction was terminated(San Andreas and Queen Charlotte).The lower/upper plate convergence coupling enables the capture of the continental plate ribbons of Baja California and Yakutat terrane by the Pacific oceanic plate,transporting them along the strike slip fault systems as para-autochthonous terranes.This Cordilleran orogenic type scenario,is also recorded in SAM following the collision with the Aluk/Farallon active ridge in the Paleogene,segmenting SAM margin into the eastwardly subducting Tupac Amaru microplate intercalated between the proto-LiquineOfqui and Atacama strike slip fault systems,where subduction was terminated and para-autochthonous terranes transported.In the Neogene,the convergence of Nazca plate with respect to SAM reinstalls subduction and the present Andean orogenic type scenario.     

Paleobiogeography of Cretaceous larger Foraminifera of Pakistan and the Caribbean region and their bearing on continental drift

The Cretaceous larger Foraminifera of Pakistan are restricted to the Upper Cretaceous belonging to the species of Orbitoides Lepidorbitoides, Omphalocyclus, and Siderolites. The species of these genera are quite distinct in comparison to other assemblages of the Tethys region. None of these species are identical in the Mediterranean or Caribbean regions, with the exception of few concordant species of Orbitoides recorded in the deep-sea cores of Bahama Island. The paleo-ecological factor is the most important consideration in paleogeographic distribution of the Upper Cretaceous larger Foraminifera.     

相关性分析在GT航空重力仪零漂改正中的应用

航空重力仪测量传感器和地面重力仪测量单元类似,往往存在零点漂移现象,通常把这种漂移视为线性关系,用前、后校数据做零漂改正处理。但是航空重力仪结构复杂,造成传感器漂移的因素很多,最为关键的因素是环境温度变化带来的扰动,实际又无法避开航空重力仪在温差剧烈变化的夏、冬两季作业。笔者以航空重力仪静态数据为例,首先进行固体潮改正并使用最小二乘法做线性零漂改正,其次使用线性相关分析方法,获得了静态数据和仪器温控温度之间具有很强的相关性特征,最后建立线性回归方程计算得到最终改正后的重力静态数据,精度有了很大的提高。这种相关性分析方法对深入理解传感器零漂改正处理方法和应用于动态测量数据中的零漂改正预研究具有实际意义。     

The effects of sampling design parameters on block selection

Cost-effective spatial sampling strategy requires balancing sampling costs with the expected benefits from improved information. A contaminated site numerical model was used to test various single-phase sampling schemes, which were evaluated based on the quality of block selections from interpolated values. Different sample set sizes, different sampling patterns, and two levels of sampling precision were used. The sample set size was the only one of these factors observed to be significant. Bias was also examined. Modest levels (<20%) had minimal impact; the effects of higher levels of bias varied with the selection level concentration.Although the research described in this article has been supported by the United States Environmental Protection Agency through cooperative agreement CR814701 to the Environmental Research Center of the University of Nevada, Las Vegas, it has not been subjected to Agency review and, therefore, does not necessarily reflect the view of the Agency and no official endorsement should be inferred.     

滑移流对浅水湖泊风浪传播特性影响试验研究

浅水湖泊等有限风吹程及水深水域的风浪多处于发展阶段，风拖曳表层水体产生的滑移流会对风浪传播特性产生影响，风浪的波速、波长等参数难以通过线性波的理论频散关系获取。为准确预测湖泊风浪参数，在考虑浅水湖泊的有限吹程和水深特征的基础上，利用风洞水槽模拟研究了滑移流对风浪传播特性的影响。结果表明：滑移流、斯托克斯流及表面流均与风速正相关，滑移流与表面流比值随着风速的增加逐渐降低并稳定于75%；滑移流对波速和波长有促进作用，对小尺度波浪的促进作用尤其显著；波浪非线性会抑制滑移流对波速及波长的促进作用；建立了考虑滑移流影响的风浪经验频散关系式以及风浪主频波速经验关系式。     

Facies and sedimentology of a carbonate delta drift (Miocene,Maldives)

The identification of sediment drifts typically relies on interpretation of reflection seismic data sets. This study sedimentologically analyzed an example of a carbonate delta drift previously identified in seismics in order to provide a catalogue of characteristic features at core and seismic scale for allowing testing the occurrence of this poorly known type of deposit elsewhere. Cores and downhole logs recovered during International Ocean Discovery Program Expedition 359 to the Maldives, in combination with seismic data, were analyzed with this objective. The diagnostic criteria for the sedimentological recognition of a delta drift are: (i) the development of sigmoidal clinoforms that thin out towards proximal and distal settings; (ii) a proximal part characterized by coarse‐grained facies with abundant shallow‐water components and distal areas dominated by fine‐grained facies with rare to absent shallow‐water components; (iii) winnowing of the finer fraction in proximal facies; (iv) extensive fragmentation of most of the bioclasts with minor intervals of well‐preserved components; (v) bigradational intervals in the proximal part and large channels in proximal to distal settings; and (vi) the lobe to delta shaped outline of the sediment accumulation. The characteristic shallow‐water fossil assemblage of the Mid to Upper Miocene delta drift consists of large benthic foraminifera (Amphistegina, Cycloclypeus, Lepidocyclina, Operculina and Heterostegina), fragmented red algae and bryozoans, equinoid debris, and Halimeda plates. The deeper‐water part of the drift bodies consists of fine‐grained planktonic foraminifera‐rich wackestone. Condensed intervals may occur as result of enhanced bottom‐current activity. In contrast to siliciclastic drift bodies, the carbonate delta drift has an important contribution by in situ shallow‐water carbonate production reminiscent of a shoal. In situ carbonate production is proposed as a major controlling factor which is as important as the pelagic settling or the shaping by density and bottom currents in siliciclastic drifts. In the absence of three‐dimensional data and in two‐dimensional views the carbonate delta drift sediment bodies resemble carbonate ramps, which indicates that there may be the need to re‐evaluate various cases of such systems described from the geological record.     

采煤沉陷对风沙区土壤非饱和水分入渗的影响

为研究采煤沉陷后风沙区土壤水分入渗变化规律,通过定水头注水结合入渗湿润峰测定的方法,对毛乌素沙地南缘补连塔矿区沉陷于2004、2005年的2个沉陷区土壤水分非饱和入渗变化进行研究,结果表明,垂直入渗观测时段(入渗开始后0~175 min)后期,与坡面剖面相比,丘间低地较多剖面垂直湿润峰的间距明显较大,垂直入渗持续能力较强。2004年沉陷区坡面未裂处平均垂直入渗速率、第175 min垂直入渗深度显著超过对照区坡面(P<0.05),2005年沉陷区坡面未裂处平均侧渗速率显著超过对照区坡面(P<0.05)。沉陷区丘间低地垂直入渗速率在入渗10 min左右前期升高后期降低,侧渗速率在入渗10~12 min的前期升高后期降低;沉陷区坡面垂直入渗速率、侧渗速率在大部分观测时段内升高。因子分析表明沉陷区入渗特征是丘间低地垂直入渗偏强,坡面侧渗偏强。