A preliminary exploration of the cooling effect of tree shade in urban landscapes

Mitigating urban heat island (UHI) effects, especially under climate change, is necessary for the promotion of urban sustainability. Shade is one of the most important functions provided by urban trees for mitigating UHI. However, the cooling effect of tree shade has not been adequately investigated. In this study, we used a simple and straightforward method to quantify the spatial and temporal variation of tree shade and examined its effect on land surface temperature (LST). We used the hillshade function in a geographic information system to quantify the spatiotemporal patterns of tree shade by integrating sun location and tree height. Relationships between shade and LST were then compared in two cities, Tampa, Florida and New York City (NYC), New York. We found that: (1) Hillshade function combining the sun location and tree height can accurately capture the spatial and temporal variation of tree shade; (2) Tree shade, particularly at 07:30, has significant cooling effect on LST in Tampa and NYC; and (3) Shade has a stronger cooling effect in Tampa than in NYC, which is most likely due to the differences in the ratio of tree canopy to impervious surface cover, the spatial arrangements of trees and buildings, and their relative heights. Comparing the cooling effects of tree shade in two cities, this study provides important insights for urban planners for UHI mitigation in different cities.     

南通市热岛效应的遥感分析

本文以3个时期的TM/ETM+图像为数据源,反演了南通市1995-2008年的地表温度,利用均值-标准差法对城市热场进行了分级,阐述了南通市热岛效应空间分布格局、时空演变特征,定量分析了地表温度与土地利用、植被覆盖率的关系,揭示了南通市城市热岛效应演变的原因。结果表明,随着城市化进程的加快,南通市城市热岛区域扩张明显,增加了11.96%,且呈现逐渐向东南方向扩张的趋势,除以濠河为中心的老城区继续保留其热岛特征外,在新城区和经济开发区出现了多个热岛区域,植被覆盖率与温度高低存在着较高的负相关性。     

城市不透水面覆盖度与地面温度遥感估算与分析

全球气候变暖和城市化的快速发展,导致了城市不透水面急剧增加和热岛效应日趋严重.本文综合利用多源遥感数据进行城市不透水面覆盖度(ISP)和地面温度(LST)的估算,实验结果较好地反映了城市ISP和LST的空间分布和变化状况;同时对二者之间的相关关系进行了简要分析,发现ISP与地面温度之间具有正相关关系,为通过绿化建设改善...     

基于MODIS数据的长株潭地区城市热岛时空分析

基于MODIS影像,采用分裂窗算法反演的地表温度对长株潭地区城市热岛空间分布与季相变化特征、影响因子进行定量研究。结果表明,长株潭地区春季和夏季存在明显的城市热岛效应,而冬季和秋季城市热岛并不明显;地表覆盖类型对城市热岛的影响十分明显,长株潭地区春、夏、秋季植被绿地状况与城市热岛呈现明显负相关分布,其中以夏季最为明显,夏季地表温度与NDVI相关系数的平方R2达到0.8193,即植被覆盖对城市地表温度的影响显著。因此,城市植被的分布与季节变化影响着城市热岛的强度与时空分布,揭示出植被绿地对降低城市热岛效应具有重要的作用,大范围的绿地建设能有效降低城市热岛效应。     

Satellite-observed changes in terrestrial vegetation growth trends across the Asia-Pacific region associated with land cover and climate from 1982 to 2011

The Asia-Pacific (AP) region has experienced faster warming than the global average in recent decades and has experienced more climate extremes, however little is known about the response of vegetation growth to these changes. The updated Global Inventory Modeling and Mapping Studies third-generation global satellite Advanced Very High Resolution Radiometer Normalized Difference Vegetation Index dataset and gridded reanalysis climate data were used to investigate the spatiotemporal changes in both trends of vegetation dynamic indicators and climatic variables. We then further analyzed their relations associated with land cover across the AP region. The main findings are threefold: (1) at continental scales the AP region overall experienced a gradual and significant increasing trend in vegetation growth during the last three decades, and this NDVI trend corresponded with an insignificant increasing trend in temperature; (2) vegetation growth was negatively and significantly correlated with the Pacific Decadal Oscillation index and the El Niño/Southern Oscillation (ENSO) in AP; and (3) at pixel scales, except for Australia, both vegetation growth and air temperature significantly increased in the majority of study regions and vegetation growth spatially correlated with temperature; In Australia and other water-limited regions vegetation growth positively correlated with precipitation.     

Warming trends in Patagonian subantartic forest

The forests in the Aysén region (ca. 43–49 °S, Chile) have a high degree of wilderness and cover more than 4.8 million hectares, making it one of the largest areas of subantarctic forest in the Southern Hemisphere. The impact of global warming on this region is poorly documented. The main objective of this work was to analyze the normalized difference vegetation index (NDVI), land surface temperature (LST) and precipitation over Aysen forests in the context of ongoing global warming. We used average monthly images of LST and NDVI derived from the MODIS sensor covering the period 2001–2016 and precipitation from gridded datasets. The Aysén region was divided into three nested spatial scales: i) regional, ii) regional considering only forests, iii) local scale considering an evergreen subantarctic forest area covering around 5 × 5 km and a local deciduous forest area (dominated by Nothofagus pumilio). Trend analysis showed a warming rate of +0.78 K/decade (p ≤ 0.05) over the subantarctic forest zone, greening of +0.01/decade for NDVI (p ≤ 0.05) over the western zone, and a drying trend (p ≤ 0.05) over the eastern zone. The minimum temperature anomalies showed an increase of about 4.5 K during the period under analysis. LST, NDVI and precipitation were also analyzed here. The recent trends in temperature, greening and precipitation over the forests of Aysén detected in this research contribute to a better understanding of global warming impacts on subantarctic forests in the southern tip of South America. Nevertheless, to get a better estimation of the impact of global warming at multiple scales is needed to have better quality and quantity of data in situ.     

基于遥感的植被年际变化及其与气候关系研究进展

植被具有明显的年际变化和季节变化特点,对植被的动态监测可以从一定程度上反映气候变化的趋势,因此监测植被动态变化以及分析这种变化与气候的关系已经成为全球变化研究的一个重要领域.随着遥感卫星获得长时间系列逐日观测数据,许多国际组织和机构制定了全球卫星数据接收、处理和生成数据集计划,所产生的标准数据集则极大地促进了该项研究.大量研究在全球尺度、洲际尺度（北美洲和欧亚大陆）以及区域尺度上广泛开展.在阅读国内外大量文献的基础上,比较分析了常用于植被监测的卫星传感器和主要数据集,汇总了植被年际变化及其与气候关系研究的主要研究方法和研究结果.结果表明近20年来全球植被活动明显增强,表现为北半球普遍存在增加的趋势,南半球干旱半干旱区出现降低的植被光合作用,但这些变化因空间位置不同和研究尺度不一样体现出不同的动态变化特征.气温和降水是影响植被变化的最主要的因素.     

Drought mapping using Geoinformation technology for some sites in the Iraqi Kurdistan region

Abstract

Iraq has suffered severely from drought in recent years and the year 2008 was the driest, particularly in the Iraqi Kurdistan region. This study incorporated Geoinformation technology into mapping the drought that severely affected the Kurdistan region in the years 2007–2008. Geoinformation technology provides support in the theories, methods and techniques for building, and development of Digital Earth aspect. Five vegetation, soil, water, and land surface temperature (LST) indices were applied to two Landsat 7 ETM+ imageries of June 2007 and June 2008, to assess the drought impacts in Erbil governorate Kurdistan during the study period. The indices that were employed in this study were Normalized Difference Vegetation Index, Bare Soil Index, Normalized Differential Water Index, Tasseled Cap Transformation Wetness, and LST. The results revealed a significant decrease in the vegetative cover (56.7%) and a decline in soil/vegetation wetness (29.9%) of the total study area. Likewise, there was a significant reduction in the water bodies surface area in the region such as Dokan Lake, which lost 32.5% of its surface area in comparison with the previous year, 2007. The study results showed that the soil moisture content was the most effective actor on the vegetative cover, LST, and drought status in the study area.     

Relationship Between Land Cover Ratio and Urban Heat Island from Remote Sensing and Automatic Weather Stations Data

Urban heat island (UHI) effect has a close relation to land covers type. This paper investigates the relationship between land cover ratio and UHI in Guangzhou, south of China using remote sensing and automatic weather stations data. The temperature data were obtained by Automatic weather stations (AWS) of Guangzhou in October, 2004, at the same time with the CBERS remote sensing image acquired. Firstly, the hourly mean temperature was computed from hourly AWS data. Secondly, the CBERS remote sensing image was classified using support vector machine (SVM) and land covers classification were output. Thirdly, the classification result was overlapped with a round buffer with 1.5 KM radius centered on the AWS, and then the land cover ratio, Edge Density (ED) and Mean Fractal Dimension (MFRACT) of buffers were computed out. Finally, the correlation coefficient between hourly mean temperature and land cover ratio, ED and MFRACT was calculated. It concluded that UHI intensity was heavier during nighttime than daytime. Stations with higher vegetation ratio and higher ED had lower heat island effect. On the contrary, stations with higher impervious ratio and lower ED had more serious heat island effect. The positive–negative of correlation coefficient between hourly mean temperature and vegetation ratio during 11:00–17:00 h (local time) was opposite to that during other time. ED was negatively correlated with hourly mean temperature except during 11:00–17:00 h. On the contrary, MFRACT was positively correlated with hourly mean temperature. It implied that fragmentations of patches were favorable to UHI alleviation, and complexities of patch were unfavorable factors.     

Spatial-temporal impacts of urban land use land cover on land surface temperature: Case studies of two Canadian urban areas

The surface fabric of urbanized areas, (i.e. its constituent land covers and land uses) plays an essential role in the generation of the urban/rural temperature differences, i.e. the Urban Heat Island (UHI) effect. Land surface information, derived from satellite imagery, and complementary information such as demographics can be used as the basis for an understanding of the atmospheric and surface thermal variations within cities. The results of comprehensive land surface characterizations of two major Canadian urban areas, the Greater Toronto Area and Ottawa-Gatineau, are described. Spatial information, including land cover fraction maps, land use and its historic changes, population density maps are compared with intra-urban surface temperature variations derived from satellite thermal imagery. Three aspects of the impacts of land cover and land use on urban land thermal characteristics are addressed, namely, (a) the relationships between surface temperature and subpixel land cover and population density (b) intra-city seasonal temperature variations and (c) the intensification of the urban heat island effect due to urban built-up land growth.     

基于移动窗口分析法的西安市热岛效应研究

本文利用西安市两期Landsat5 TM影像,提取了西安市土地利用变化信息、NDVI指数、MNDWI指数和地表亮温,并基于移动窗口分析法进行了热岛效应边界的定量研究,旨在为陕西省地理国(省)情监测中环境监测部分探索一些可行的研究方法。研究结果表明:11年间,西安市热岛效应的发展趋势与城市扩张情况基本一致;地表亮温与植被指数和水体指数存在负相关关系,因此增加植被和水体面积有助于调节城市热岛效应的强度。     

城市下垫面覆盖类型变化对热岛效应影响的模拟研究

利用Landsat TM/ETM 卫星影像的热红外数据反演了武汉市的地表温度,定量地分析了1988~2002年武汉市热岛的时空分布;结合遥感手段和误差反向传播神经网络方法,动态地模拟了当汉口地区下垫面覆盖类型变化时的热岛分布情况,重点对绿地增加时热岛的变化作了详细的分析。结果显示,1988~2002年,武汉市城市热岛效应明显增强,绿地面积的增加能缓解局部热岛的范围和强度,绿地面积越大,热岛的缓冲范围越大,缓冲强度亦大。     

On urban heat island of Beijing based on landsat TM data

Land surface temperature (LST) of Beijing area was retrieved from Landsat TM thermal band data utilizing a radiative transfer equation and the urban heat island (HUI) effects of Beijing and its relationship with land cover and normalized difference vegetation index (NDVI) were discussed. The result of LST showed that the urban LST was evidently higher than the suburban one. The average urban LST was found to 4. 5°C and 9°C higher than the suburban and outer suburban temperature, respectively, which demonstrated the prominent UHI effects in Beijing. Prominent negative correlation between LST and NDVI was found in the urban area, which suggested the low percent vegetation cover in the urban area was the main cause of the urban heat island.     

青藏高原地表冻融循环与植被返青期的变化趋势及其气候响应特征

青藏高原特殊的地理环境使其对全球气候变化十分敏感,所以研究其地表冻融循环和植被返青期的时空动态对于回顾和预测青藏高原对全球气候变化的响应具有重要意义。本文通过利用双指标地表冻融状态识别算法和被动微波亮温数据(SMMR、SSMI和SSMIS)来获取青藏高原长时间序列(1982年—2013年)逐日地表冻融状态,通过对GIMMS全球植被指数数据产品进行NDVI的滤波重建和返青期提取来获取青藏高原植被长时间序列(年份)的返青期;并且分析了地表冻融循环和植被返青期的变化趋势、相互关系及对青藏高原气候变化的响应特征。总体来看,在空间上,青藏高原的地表冻结集中发生在10月30日至次年4月2日,平均地表融化首日集中在5月12—27日,平均植被返青期集中在5月19—29日。植被返青期平均发生在地表融化首日后的3.94±5.58日,两者具有显著的相关关系(R=0.51,P=0.003)。青藏高原的地表融化首日和植被返青期在1982年—2013年间经历了推迟、提前再推迟的3个过程,融化时间和返青期在1982年—1987年分别以1.93±1.81 d/a和0.28±1.01 d/a的速度推迟;在1987年—2006年分别以0.67±0.20 d/a和0.13±0.16 d/a的速度提前;在2006年—2013年分别以0.97±0.84 d/a和1.04±0.52 d/a的速度推迟。中国气象局布设在青藏高原的CMA气象站的温度数据表明,高原的春季地表0 cm土壤温度呈持续上升的趋势,而植被返青期和地表融化首日并未持续提前,这可能是由几十年来高原不同地区降水等其他环境因素变化的差异造成。同时在气温持续升高期间,植被返青期的返青温度阈值也不断具有上升的趋势(R=0.72,P0.001),这可能与植被适应气候变化的自身调节能力有关。     

基于归一化植被指数的城市热岛效应分析

植被指数模型的应用领域已经愈加广泛,利用陆地地表温度反演与归一化植被指数在空间变化上具有相反趋势的特点,将归一化植被指数引入到城市热岛效应现象评价中。基于CBERS CCD遥感影像数据源,通过阈值划分及水体提取建立人工决策树,对城市热岛效应进行定量分析与总体评价,建立一定的评价指标,为城市的环境监测、管理及规划提供依据。     

Area Delineation and Spatial-Temporal Dynamics of Urban Heat Island in Lanzhou City,China Using Remote Sensing Imagery

One of the key impacts of rapid urbanization on the environment is the effect of urban heat island (UHI). By using the Landsat TM/ETM+ thermal infrared remote sensing data of 1993, 2001 and 2011 to retrieve the land surface temperature (LST) of Lanzhou City, and by adopting object-oriented fractal net evolution approach (FNEA) to make image segmentation of the LST, the UHI elements were extracted. The G* index spatial aggregation analysis was made to calculate the urban heat island ratio index (URI), and the landscape metrics were used to quantify the changes of the spatial pattern of the UHI from the aspects of quantity, shape and structure. The impervious surface distribution and vegetation coverage were extracted by a constrained linear spectral mixture model to explore the relationships of the impervious surface distribution and vegetation coverage with the UHI. The information of urban built-up area was extracted by using UBI (NDBI-NDVI) index, and the effects of urban expansion on city thermal environment were quantitatively analyzed, with the URI and the LST grade maps built. In recent 20 years, the UHI effect in Lanzhou City was strengthened, with the URI increased by 1.4 times. The urban expansion had a spatiotemporal consistency with the UHI expansion. The patch number and density of the UHI landscape were increased, the patch shape and the whole landscape tended to be complex, the landscape became more fragmented, and the landscape connectivity was decreased. The heat island strength had a negative linear correlation with the urban vegetation coverage, and a positive logarithmic correlation with the urban impervious surface coverage.     

基于TM/ETM~+影像的绵阳春秋两季城市热环境特征对比分析

选取中等城市——四川省绵阳市为研究对象,以2000年(代表秋季)、2001年(代表春季)TM/ETM+遥感影像为数据源。在基于影像算法反演地表温度的基础上,对研究区春、秋两季热场剖面、建成区范围内热力景观斑块和城市热岛效应进行研究。结果表明:(1)无论春季还是秋季,地表温度高低与下垫面性质具有较大相关性,水体和植被覆盖较好的区域呈现低温,而水泥、沥青等不透水面温度较高;(2)秋季相对春季而言,温度相对较高的热力景观类型面积减少,而温度较低的热力景观类型面积增加。分析热力景观异质性指数发现,优势度指数值春季大于秋季,说明春季存在较明显的优势斑块;(3)运用城乡平均温度对比法和热岛面积指数法,计算春季热岛强度值为1.77℃,秋季热岛强度值为0.78℃,由此说明,在该时段内春季的城市热岛效应强于秋季。     

Mapping and monitoring net primary productivity with AVHRR NDVI time-series: statistical equivalence of cumulative vegetation indices

In the last two decades, numerous investigators have proposed cumulative vegetation indices (i.e., functions which encode the cumulative effect of NDVI maximum value composite time-series into a single variable) for net primary productivity (NPP) mapping and monitoring on a regional to continental basis. In this paper, we investigate the relationships among three of the most commonly used cumulative vegetation indices, expanding on the definition of equivalence of remotely sensed vegetation indices for decision making. We consider two cumulative vegetation indices as equivalent, if the value of one index is statistically predictable from the value of the other index. Using an annual time-series of broad-scale AVHRR NDVI monthly maximum value composites of the island of Corsica (France), we show that the pairwise linear association among the analysed cumulative vegetation indices shows coefficients of determination (R²) higher than 0.99. That is, knowing the value of one index is statistically equivalent to knowing the value of the other indices for application purposes.     

城市地表典型遥感参数与热岛效应时空分析研究——以桂林市为例

利用桂林市1991年和2013年的卫星遥感影像数据,分别提取两个时期的归一化建筑指数(NDBI)、归一化植被指数(NDVI)和改进的归一化差异水体指数(MNDWI)3个地表典型参数,并利用回归分析方法,分析了3个地表典型参数与利用Landsat卫星(热红外波段)反演的地表温度(LST)的相关关系。研究结果表明:桂林市中、高、极高温区3个温度类别的变化趋势与桂林市城市扩张趋势基本一致;NDBI与LST成显著的正相关关系,而NDVI、MNDWI则与LST成负相关关系,且各参数对地表温度响应的程度各有差异。该研究成果对于揭示桂林市热岛效应现状、缓解热岛效应及推进桂林市生态城市建设具有一定的参考意义。     

基于影像IB算法的沈阳市热岛效应分析

本文利用2006年、2010年沈阳市地区TM遥感数据,采用影像IB算法反演地表温度,分析了沈阳市热岛效应的空间分布特征、变化现象以及地表温度与归一化植被指数(NDVI)、归一化建筑指数(NDBI)之间的相关性。研究表明沈阳市热岛效应总体呈现由市中心向四周逐渐扩张的空间特征,地表温度与归一化植被指数(ND-VI)存在紧密的负线性相关关系,地表温度与归一建筑指数(NDBI)存在正相关关系。