Relationships between karst and tectonics: case-study of the cave system north of Lake Thun (Bern,Switzerland)

The cave system is situated north of Lake Thun, in the Helvetic border chain. The overall geology is simple: the slightly dipping (15–25° towards the southeast) strata are interrupted by a NE–SW trending normal fault with a throw of 150 m in the NE and about 500 m in the SW. Since a part of the region is covered by flysch, the caves are the only way to observe the geological setting of the underlying Cretaceous and Eocene series. We show that observations in caves may yield valuable information about the onset of the tectonic movements: in particular, observations in the Bärenkluft region clearly demonstrate that the beginning of prealpine extension had already begun in the Upper Cretaceous, and that this normal fault has been inverted later during Alpine compression. We also illustrate the influence of tectonic stress and strain upon karstification. The Alpine tectonic phases, with alternating compression and extension, contributed to the development of different karstogenetic levels. Tectonic strains opened and possibly closed some fractures, allowing (or preventing) water to flow through parts of the karst massive. The structural setting, defining the overall geometry of the limestone bed, played an important role in the development of the various phases of the system. Most of the conduits appear to belong to old, deep phreatic systems. Tectonics is only one of a number of factors controlling karstification. Together with lithology, it represents the geological control. Geomorphological factors (mainly spring and catchment positions, but also erosion of the flysch cover), as well as bioclimatical factors (quantity and physico-chemical characteristics of water), and hydrodynamics and transport processes can play a significant role on the genesis of karst systems.     

云南泸水市压扭性构造对银厂坪白云岩岩溶系统发育控制作用

银厂坪岩溶系统由溶蚀洼地和溶洞系统组成,溶蚀洼地内发育15个规模和形态不同的落水洞以及多条溶沟。根据断层面擦痕反演构造应力张量和共轭剪节理反映的应力场特征, 结合区域地质背景,认为研究区于始新世—早中新世主要受 SEE-NWW 向挤压和 NNE-SSW 向拉张应力场控制,形成 NW 向左旋压扭性构造,其几何学和运动学特征符合里德尔剪切模式。走滑拉分阶区所形成凹陷具有汇水功能,利于岩溶作用形成溶蚀洼地,内部发育的共轭节理交汇部位是良好的导水构造,叠加在走滑微拉分阶区内,促进白云岩溶蚀作用形成落水洞。地下岩层受构造挤压发生层间滑动形成微裂隙,经溶蚀扩大,形成顺倾斜岩层发育的岩溶洞穴。左行走滑断裂造成地表河流和山脊发生系统左旋位错,发育断层崖于山脚处形成倒石堆,在构造抬升和剥蚀作用下,岩壁不断后退,地下河频繁袭夺使早期溶洞成为干洞,现代地下河于斜坡下游通过地下河出口转为明流。     

Proposition of dating a Miocene Alpine tectonic event using mammal biochronology: example of the Four karst filling

Abstract

Although the general tectonic history of the Ile Crémieu area (southern Jura) is known, establishing the chronology of events that have influenced the tectonic evolution seems to be much more difficult. A newly discovered layered karst filling in the Bajocian limestone, in the town of Four (Isère), is a synsedimentary evidence of a Tertiary tectonic activity. Actually, only the lower part of the filling has been folded by the movement of the fault in which the karstic network was made. Fossil mammals date the last movement on this fault plane, between 13.0 and 13.4 Ma. At a larger scale, the last activity of this fault could be correlated with a change in the paleo-stress could generated by the Alpine orogen, dating with precision an Alpine tectonic event. © 2002 Editions scientifiques et médicales Elsevier SAS. All rights reserved.     

湘中灰山港—煤炭坝地区岩溶发育特征及其构造控制

湘中灰山港—煤炭坝地区岩溶塌陷发育,但对该地区岩溶发育总体特征及地质背景尚缺乏全面、深入地研究。文章依托1∶5万区域地质调查项目,结合相关资料,对该地区岩溶发育特征及其构造控制条件进行研究与总结。研究区可溶岩主要属于上古生界,少量发育于白垩系—古近系底部。地层潜在岩溶发育强度依次为马平组＞大埔组＞栖霞组和茅口组＞百花亭组（仅指其中的灰岩质砾岩）＞大隆组。平面上可划分为裸露型、覆盖型和埋藏型3种类型岩溶区,其中覆盖型岩溶区可进一步划分为强、中、弱3类。覆盖型和埋藏型岩溶区垂向上可分为浅部岩溶发育带、中部溶洞裂隙发育带和深部岩溶弱发育带。二叠统东吴抬升,中三叠世以来多次挤压和白垩纪—古近纪区域伸展等构造事件形成的褶皱、不同方向断裂裂隙系统、盆地基底构造,以及古近纪以来的差异升降运动等控制了岩溶发育特征。岩溶作用具有三个演化阶段:第一演化阶段形成龙潭组之下的溶孔、溶洞等古岩溶形态;第二演化阶段形成了岩溶低丘地貌;第三演化阶段形成覆盖型岩溶地貌。      

武汉地区天兴洲碳酸盐岩条带岩溶发育的异常性及其成因探讨

为了研究武汉地区中北部紧邻襄樊—广济断裂的天兴洲碳酸盐岩条带岩溶发育的异常特性,将该条带的岩石化学成份、矿物成份、岩性以及岩溶发育程度、溶洞规模、溶洞顶板在基岩面下的埋深、岩溶垂向分带和溶洞充填物等与其南侧的大桥和白沙洲碳酸盐岩条带进行对比分析,发现它们之间存在很大的差异。天兴洲碳酸盐岩条带岩溶发育的异常性与襄樊—广济断裂活动有关:晚三叠世—侏罗纪,襄樊-广济断裂发生挤压逆冲推覆活动使上、下碳酸盐岩组出露地表,发生第一期岩溶作用;白垩—古近纪,以襄樊—广济断裂为主体的断裂发生伸展活动,张性断裂和裂隙为基性岩浆喷溢和构造热液活动提供了通道,构造热液白云岩化和硅化作用对天兴洲碳酸盐岩条带的原岩进行改造,形成以白云岩为主、含硅质岩的具弱溶蚀性的岩石组合,同时,由于红层的广泛覆盖,这一时期岩溶作用间断;新近纪—早更新世,武汉地区整体隆升,各碳酸盐岩条带再次出露地表,发生第二期岩溶作用,而天兴洲条带由于岩性发生改变,可溶性减弱,与其它条带相比岩溶作用较弱。      

3D modeling and monitoring of karst system as a base for its evaluation and utilization: a case study from eastern Serbia

Beljanica Mountain in eastern Serbia is a part of the Carpathian Balkan arch (northern Alpine branch). It covers an area of about 300 km² and consists mostly of Jurassic and Cretaceous limestones. Numerous surface karst features, long caves and several large karstic springs located in Beljanica’s piedmont along the contact of karstic and non-karstic rocks are all indicators of an intense karstification. Currently, the large karstic water reserves of Beljanica Mountain are not properly utilized because of their distance from main consumers, the objection by national water managers that the springs lack a stable and sufficient discharge particularly during recession periods. Due to its unpolluted and high quality water, the area is a great prospect for future water supply, and provides an opportunity for artificial regulation and for the design and implementation of specific tapping structures. This paper includes an analysis of the created 3D ArcGIS model of karst interior and its correlation with historical and newly collected data of spring discharges and groundwater physico-chemical characteristics. The results of karst aquifer monitoring (both quantitative and qualitative) are linked with the results of extensive field geological and speleological survey of the upper non-saturated part of the karst (such as sinkholes, pits and caves) and with the investigation of the permanently saturated deeper part of the aquifer (including the diving methods). The model of karst interior is based on the data from the 69 caves, 15 sinks and 1,682 dolines (sinkholes) surveyed. The total length of the karst channels network, calculated using the GIS model and presented in a 3D environment, is 647 km. The catchment areas of five major springs that drain the areas are estimated to range from only 7 km² (Malo Vrelo Spring) to 124 km² (Vrelo Mlave Spring). The groundwater exploitable reserves of Beljanica karst aquifer are estimated to be over 4 m³/s. The waters are low mineralized, unpolluted and have a great potential for water supply.     

鄂尔多斯盆地周边断裂运动学分析与晚中生代构造应力体制转换

基于对鄂尔多斯盆地西南缘构造带、中央断裂、东缘边界带和东北部地区的断裂几何特征、运动学及其活动期次的野外观察和测量,并根据断层面上滑动矢量的叠加关系和区域构造演化历史,确定了鄂尔多斯盆地周边地带晚中生代构造主应力方向、应力体制及其转换序列,提出了4阶段构造演化模式和引张-挤压交替转换过程。早中侏罗世,盆地处于引张应力环境,引张方向为N-S至NNE-SSW向。中侏罗世晚期至晚侏罗世,构造应力场转换为挤压体制,盆地周缘遭受近W-E、NW-SE、NE-SW等多向挤压应力作用。早白垩世,盆地构造应力场转换为引张应力体制,引张应力方向为近W-E、NW-SE和NE-SW向。早白垩世晚期至晚白垩世,盆地应力体制再次发生转换,从前期的引张应力体制转换为NW-SE向挤压应力体制。晚中生代构造应力体制转换和应力场方向变化不仅记录了不同板块之间汇聚产生的远程效应,同时记录了盆地深部构造-热活动事件,并对盆地原型进行了一定的改造。     

碳酸盐岩早成岩岩溶作用及油气地质意义

碳酸盐岩早成岩岩溶作用可发育溶蚀孔洞或具有规模的溶洞,这对于认识我国塔里木盆地、四川盆地碳酸盐岩内幕岩溶区孔洞成因与分布具有重要参考价值。然而碳酸盐岩早成岩岩溶在我国现代岩溶发育较少,研究程度低。文章通过总结国外在碳酸盐岩早成岩岩溶形成机理及孔洞发育特征的研究成果,探讨早成岩岩溶的油气地质意义:（1）成岩早期碳酸盐岩胶结程度差,岩石疏松,孔隙度、渗透率极高,介质空间较均匀;（2）早成岩岩溶作用与海平面升降具有明显的关系,尤其海岛或滨岸地区的淡水-海水交互带,以混合水岩溶为特征的岩溶作用较强烈;（3）早成岩岩溶孔洞发育分布具有一定特点,岛屿岩溶以发育侧面边缘洞穴为特征,而滨海岩溶以发育混合带管道为特征;（4）孔洞的发育主要受淡水中CO2含量、水流通过混合过渡带的水动力及海平面变化速率控制;（5）早成岩岩溶为研究我国地质历史时期碳酸盐岩短期暴露岩溶作用提供借鉴,对其孔洞发育分布特征的认识,将促进碳酸盐岩内幕区孔洞型油气储层形成机理研究,指导内幕区孔洞储层分布预测和油气勘探。      

Genesis of folds in external zones: application of fault propagation fold model. Gafsa Basin example (southern central Tunisia)

The evolution of geological structures is related particularly to reactivation of preexisting fault, thus the importance of tectonic inheritance. Basing on stratigraphic and structural data in external zones leaving the example of Gafsa Basin (southern central Tunisia), we study the evolution of folds during tectonic phases. The structural and stratigraphic data prove that Gafsa Basin is subject for more than one tectonic phase where beginning by Cretaceous extension and reactivated by Atlasic compression. The combination of field results associated to that geomorphology confirms the application of “fault propagation model” as evolution mode of folds. The balanced of cross section, using numerical software Ramp E.M. 1.5.2, shows the importance of tectonic inheritance to interpret evolution of structures reliefs. The deformation increases related to reactivation of old normal fault. The most important deformation is observed in Jbal At Taghli presenting folds in the form of duplex resulted from conjugate activity of tear fault; it is the first interpretation of tear fault activity in surface in the scale of Tunisia. The application of fault propagation fold model to interpret fold genesis confirms the field data and proves the role of tectonic inheritance and reactivation of preexisting faults in the evolution of structures during different tectonic phases.     

塔中西部奥陶系鹰山组古岩溶特征及主控因素

为明确塔中西部奥陶系鹰山组古岩溶储层发育及主控因素,总结鹰山组古岩溶特征及发育条件,划分了岩溶层组类型。在鹰山组古地貌恢复基础上,通过钻井、取心、测井等资料,分析丘状岩溶台地、上丘状岩溶缓坡地和下丘状岩溶缓坡地典型井岩溶缝洞特征。结合大量钻井资料分析了上述3类古地貌单元岩溶缝洞储层发育规律及主控因素。对岩溶缝洞储层发育深度分析表明,岩溶缝洞发育段主要在鹰山组顶面以下0~180 m,受3期海平面控制,发育多层缝洞。表层溶洞主要发育在0~50 m,泥质充填较强,测井GR值较高,溶洞规模多小于2 m。岩溶台地区岩溶缝洞形成受微地貌、水动力条件控制,以小规模溶洞、溶蚀孔洞、溶蚀裂缝为主,缝洞后期易充填。岩溶缓坡地岩溶缝洞形成受岩溶层组、水动力条件控制,以小溶蚀孔洞、溶蚀裂缝为主,后期不易充填。滨岸岩溶带及岩溶岛屿发育海水、混合水岩溶作用,溶蚀作用及冲蚀、侵蚀作用使该区域形成较大洞穴。     

冀中坳陷奥陶系多期岩溶发育特征

冀中坳陷奥陶系岩溶储层发育,但在不同的层位和不同的地区岩溶孔洞缝的发育程度差别很大,表明岩溶发育的主控因素不同。通过显微镜下和露头剖面对裂缝产状和切割关系的分析,识别出了至少三期裂缝。研究表明:这三期裂缝分别对应于印支期、燕山期和喜马拉雅期的岩石破裂事件。通过露头、镜下对孔洞缝形态的研究,结合胶结物的阴极发光特征,认为冀中坳陷奥陶系存在同生期岩溶、埋藏期岩溶和表生期岩溶。多期的岩溶作用形成了目前奥陶系的岩溶储层。不同时期的构造活动对冀中坳陷的岩溶作用影响不同。在近地表环境下,奥陶系经历的构造活动越强烈,溶洞发育率越高。对比冀中坳陷内各岩溶古地貌类型和放空漏失的数据,表明岩溶洼地也是有利的古地貌类型,分析认为这种岩溶洼地为不积水的岩溶洼地。岩溶高地、岩溶斜坡和岩溶洼地在垂向上具有不同深度范围的水平岩溶分带,对应于不同地貌类型下的渗流带和潜流带。在靠近深大断裂带附近,有大量的钻具放空和泥浆漏失,并且流体包裹体均一化温度表明有热液的存在。在岩溶作用较弱、溶洞发育率低的区域,白云岩和石灰岩的薄互层段是有利的岩溶发育层段。     

Proposition of dating a Miocene Alpine tectonic event using mammal biochronology: example of the Four karst filling

Although the general tectonic history of the Ile Crémieu area (southern Jura) is known, establishing the chronology of events that have influenced the tectonic evolution seems to be much more difficult. A newly discovered layered karst filling in the Bajocian limestone, in the town of Four (Isère), is a synsedimentary evidence of a Tertiary tectonic activity. Actually, only the lower part of the filling has been folded by the movement of the fault in which the karstic network was made. Fossil mammals date the last movement on this fault plane, between 13.0 and 13.4 Ma. At a larger scale, the last activity of this fault could be correlated with a change in the paleo-stress field generated by the Alpine orogen, dating with precision an Alpine tectonic event.     

云南牛栏江德泽-李子箐段岩溶发育特征及成因分析

云南牛栏江德泽-李子箐段岩溶发育,主要类型为岩溶塌陷和溶洞（暗河）。在研究区内现有地质资料及调查成果的基础上,总结了研究区岩溶发育的基本特征：空间上分布广、密度大,个体规模大,各类岩溶类型相互连通。系统地分析了研究区岩溶作用的成因,主要为：①区内的降雨量较大,为岩溶的发育提供了丰富的水源;②研究区西北部的车乌-鲁冲大断裂,控制着区内总体构造形态,并造成了北东向与南东向等多组节理裂隙的发育,为岩溶水的流通创造了条件;③广泛分布的可溶性岩石,为岩溶的发育提供了物质条件,有利于岩溶作用的发生。     

轮古地区古岩溶成像测井响应特征及其对岩溶发育的指示作用

塔里木盆地轮古地区奥陶系碳酸盐岩储层受多期构造运动及古岩溶作用的叠加改造,该地区古岩溶作用形成的溶洞、裂缝等次生孔隙是主要的油气储集空间。因此古岩溶发育研究是碳酸盐储层评价极为重要的研究内容。文章在对轮古地区奥陶系碳酸盐岩储层大量成像测井资料处理基础上,主要通过对溶蚀裂缝、溶洞的成像测井响应特征进行分析,总结古岩溶标志的成像测井响应规律。高导缝在成像测井图像上表现为褐黑色正弦曲线,溶蚀缝表现为裂缝图像边缘不平直,未充填溶洞在图像上表现为暗色的团块分布,对于全充填洞,可在成像测井图中见到层理等沉积现象。溶蚀程度的差异可根据成像测井资料上解释的裂缝及溶洞中角砾的多寡来度量。轮古西井区,其大溶洞中角砾已溶蚀掉,部分溶洞充填泥砂,表明溶蚀程度很高;轮古中部各井溶洞中的角砾还比较大,单产状裂缝溶洞的规模比轮古西井区小,溶洞溶蚀程度较弱;轮古东井区未见单产状小溶洞,仅见大溶洞的雏形或只有交叉缝和溶蚀裂缝。对区域大量成像测井识别的洞穴数据统计结果表明轮古地区奥陶系洞穴型岩溶储层的分布主要受表层岩溶作用控制。      

鄂西利川齐岳山高陡背斜带的古应力分析

鄂西利川地区位于湘鄂西构造带与川东构造带的过渡部位,叠加褶皱发育,地处两大构造带分界处的齐岳山高陡背斜带断裂发育。本文以利川地区褶皱和断裂为研究对象,在野外观测和分析的基础上,采用断层滑动数据反演方法,对构造应力场进行了恢复;结合区域构造演化历史,提出该区侏罗纪以来经历了五期构造应力作用,从早到晚分别为:北西-南东向挤压(J3-K1)、近东西向挤压(K1)、近南北向挤压(K1-K2)、北西-南东向引张(K2)和北东-南西向挤压(E3)。该区侏罗纪以来构造变形序列的建立,为深入认识齐岳山高陡背斜带地质灾害形成的地质背景提供了构造地质学证据。     

平寨坝址左岸岩溶发育规律及其对建坝条件的影响

地层岩性、水文地质、地质构造对平寨坝址的工程地质条件起着主要作用。从岩溶形态入手 ,对平寨坝址左岸岩溶的分布规律进行了研究 ,指出主要岩溶形态如洼地、漏斗、落水洞等在平面上呈带状分布 ;溶洞在垂向上具成层性、空间展布上具方向性以及平面分布具差异性等分布规律。对影响岩溶发育的因素进行了探讨的结果表明 :(1)灰岩的纯度越高、岩层越单一、层理的厚度越大 ,岩溶越发育 ;(2 )褶皱控制岩溶系统整体发育的方向、控制溶洞发育部位、规模及形态 ;(3)裂隙的发育程度和延伸方向决定岩溶发育的程度和发展方向。在岩溶发育规律的基础上对坝址左岸岩溶进行了如下预测 :(1)坝址左岸表层岩溶发育较强 ,岩体内部发育较弱 ;(2 )在坝轴线附近隐伏大规模溶洞的可能性较小 ;(3)平寨坝址河床深岩溶不发育。最后探讨了岩溶发育对建坝可能产生的渗漏与稳定性降低等问题     

Establishing rates of karst landscape evolution in the Tropics: a context for the formation of archaeological sites in western Flores,Indonesia

Tropical landscapes evolve at a rapid rate, creating stepped alluvial terraces, dense basin and cone topographies and multilevel cave systems. An understanding of the rate of landscape evolution is crucial for understanding how landscapes respond to tectonic instability and for reconstructing landscapes that have changed over archaeological timescales. The rate of landscape incision as a proxy for karst landscape evolution in Indonesia, a key region in the path of human dispersal, has been established using the rate of karstification – by estimating a chronology for stages of cave development using thermal ionisation mass spectrometry U‐series dating on flowstones, and the rate of downcutting – by establishing a chronology for a series of alluvial terraces using red thermoluminescence dating. Using these techniques we have determined that the estimated rate of karstification (113 ± 26 mm ka^?1) is slower than the average rate of downcutting (305 ± 24 mm ka^?1), and the combined rate of landscape incision (217 ± 18 mm ka^?1) is slower than the known rate of tectonic uplift for this region derived from raised coral terraces (450 ± 50 mm ka^?1). This suggests that rivers are quicker to respond to tectonic instability, but both cave and river systems display a slower rate of incision and karstification than uplift. Correlations between these components of the landscape system reveal a strong, interacting relationship where defined phases of uplift are reflected in the pattern of karstification and cycles of downcutting. An understanding of this relationship has been pivotal in reconstructing the formation and geomorphic history of archaeological caves such as Liang Bua. Copyright © 2010 John Wiley & Sons, Ltd.     

塔北哈拉哈塘地区奥陶系鹰山组—一间房组岩溶储层特征及成因模式

塔里木盆地北部哈拉哈塘地区奥陶系岩溶型储层油气勘探近年来获得了重大突破,其主要勘探目的层系为鹰山组—一间房组碳酸盐岩,进一步深化碳酸盐岩岩溶储层认识对于加快塔里木盆地海相油气勘探具有重要意义。在分析区域地质背景的基础上,结合钻井、岩心、测井、地震等资料,对研究区鹰山组—一间房组岩溶储层特征以及储层发育主控因素和成因演化模式进行了深入研究。研究认为,鹰山组—一间房组岩溶储层基质孔渗条件差,基质孔隙不能单独成为有利的油气储集空间,储层储集空间主要为溶蚀孔洞以及裂缝系统。储层经历的岩溶作用类型主要有(准)同生岩溶作用、风化岩溶作用以及埋藏热液岩溶作用等,各种岩溶作用的多期叠加改造使得鹰山组—一间房组岩溶储层极为发育。通过对储层成因过程的研究分析,认为构造隆升为岩溶储层的发育提供了有利条件并控制了储层发育格局;多期岩溶作用是形成岩溶储层的关键因素;断裂及裂缝的发育促进了岩溶储层的形成并改善了储层的储集性能。     

江南东段地区NE-SW向断裂带断层滑移矢量反演及其大地构造意义

华南中-新生代构造演化受太平洋构造域和特提斯洋构造域的联合控制.以江南东段NE-SW向景德镇-歙县剪切带和球川-萧山断裂中发育的脆性断层为研究对象,利用野外交切关系和断层滑移矢量反演方法厘定了7期构造变形序列并反演了各期古构造应力场,讨论了断层活动的时代及其动力学.白垩纪至新生代研究区7期古构造应力场分别为:(1)早白垩世早期(136～125Ma)NW-SE向伸展;(2)早白垩世晚期(125～107Ma)N-S向挤压和E-W向伸展;(3)早白垩世末期至晚白垩世早期(105～86Ma)NW-SE向伸展;(4)白垩世中期(86～80Ma)NW-SE向挤压和NE-SW向伸展;(5)晚白垩世晚期至始新世末期(80～36Ma)N-S向伸展;(6)始新世末期至渐新世早期(36～30Ma)NE-SW向挤压和NW-SE向伸展;(7)渐新世早期至中新世中期(30～17Ma)NE-SW向伸展.结合区域地质研究表明,第1期至第4期古构造应力场与古太平洋构造域的板片后撤、俯冲以及微块体(菲律宾地块)间的碰撞作用有关;第5期伸展作用受控于新特提斯构造域俯冲板片后撤,而第6期和第7期古构造应力场主要与印-亚碰撞的远程效应有关.白垩纪至新生代,华南东部受伸展构造体制和走滑构造体制的交替控制.先存断裂的发育可能是导致华南晚中生代走滑构造体制的主要控制因素.