The Problems of Seismic Risk Prediction for the Territory of the Lower Amur Region: Paleoseismogeological and Seismological Analysis

The studied region is located at the junction between the Pacific and Central Asian seismoactive belts. Macroseismic data on earthquakes of this region are available for the last 150 years, while instrumental seismological observations began in the mid-20th century; however, the recurrence interval of strong earthquakes can be up to several centuries and even thousands of years. In this respect, many areas of the Amur region had been believed to be nearly aseismic until earthquakes occurred there. Paleoseismogeological studies of recent years have allowed the character of Holocene displacements to be estimated for some of the main regional structures. As a result, the main tendencies of the Late Quaternary geological evolution of the region remain uncertain and the potential seismogenerating structures are not completely known. Therefore the problem of revealing new zones and periods of seismic activity is topical for the entire Amur region. The importance of this problem is related to the weak degree of study of the region by contemporary methods of active tectonics, the intensive development of engineering infrastructure, which is vulnerable to seismic impacts, and the necessity of long-term seismic forecasting. The present work provides the results of paleoseismogeological studies of the active faults in the Amur region. On the basis of new data on the magnitude potential of seismogenerating structures based on the magnitudes of historical earthquakes and instrumentally recorded ones, we have estimated the seismic effects from strong deep-focus earthquakes and the attenuation coefficients and calculated radii of the first three isoseismals for crustal earthquakes. By using the methods of statistical modeling, we distinguish the periods when seismic effects increased from earthquakes with 2 ≤ M ≤ 6. It is shown that seismic hazard assessment should take into account the dynamics of the seismic regime, caused by the change of the earthquake source depth. It is found that the epicenters of earthquakes with 5 ≤ M ≤ 6 form non-crossing seismic zones in different phases of changes in the Earth’s annual rotation.     

Deep roots of seismotectonics of the Far East: The Amur River and Primorye zones

The role of the lateral structure of the lithospheric mantle in the seismotectonics and seismicity of the southern part of the Russian Far East has been investigated. The positions of the epicenters of all the major earthquakes in Sakhalin (M ≥ 6.0), as well as in the Amur region and the Primorye zones (M ≥ 5.0), are defined by the boundaries of the Anyui block of highly ferruginous mantle, which lies at the base of the Sikhote-Alin area. Three cycles of large earthquakes are recognized in the region: the end of the 19th-beginning of the 20th century, the mid-20th century, and end of the 20th-beginning of the 21st century. In the seismic zone of the Amur region (hereafter, the Amur seismic zone), the epicenters of the large earthquakes in each cycle migrate from the SW to NE along the Tan-Lu fault megasystem at a rate of 30–60 km/yr. The specific features of the seismicity of the region are explained by the repeated arrival of strain waves from the west. The waves propagate in the upper part of the mantle and provoke the activation of the deep structure of the region. The detailed analysis of the earthquakes in the Sikhote-Alin area (M ≥ 4.0) in 1973–2009 confirmed the clockwise tectonic rotation of the mantle block. The characteristics of the Primorye zone of deep-focus seismicity at the Russia-China boundary are stated. Since 1973, 13 earthquakes with M ≥ 6.0 have been recorded in the zone at a depth of 300–500 km. This number of earthquakes is at least twice as many as the number of large deep-focus earthquakes elsewhere in the Sea of Japan-Sea of Okhotsk transition zone. The unique genesis of the Primorye seismic zone is related to the additional compression in the seismofocal area due to the creeping of the Anyui mantle block onto the subduction zone during its rotation. The geodynamic implications of the seismotectonic analysis are examined, and the necessity of division of the Amur plate into three geodynamically independent lithospheric blocks is substantiated.     

Shallow slides and pockmark swarms in the Eivissa Channel, western Mediterranean Sea

Four slides, the Ana, Joan, Nuna and Jersi slides, have been imaged on the seafloor along the Balearic margin of the Eivissa Channel in the western Mediterranean. They have areas of up to 16 km² and occur in water depths ranging between 600 and 900 m. Volumes range from 0·14 to 0·4 km³. Their headwall scarps, internal architecture and associated deposits are characterized using a combination of swath bathymetry data and very high‐resolution seismic reflection profiles. In general, they show horseshoe‐shaped headwall scarps and distinct depositional lobes with positive relief. Internally, the slide bodies are mostly composed of transparent seismic facies. Chaotic facies are observed at the toe of some of the slides, and blocks of coherent stratified facies embedded in the slide deposit have also been identified. The reflection profiles demonstrate that the four slides share the same slip horizon, which corresponds to a distinctive continuous, high‐amplitude reflector. Furthermore, the geometry of the headwall scars of the Nuna and Ana slides reveals evidence of pockmarks, and fluid escape features are also present further upslope. This indicates a possible link between fluid escape features and destabilization of the upper sediment layers. In addition, these well‐characterized slides demonstrate the pitfalls associated with calculating the volume of the slide masses using headwall scarp heights and the assumed preslide seafloor topography in the absence of seismic data. The internal structure also demonstrates that transport distances within the slides are generally low and poorly characterized by headwall scarp to slide toe lengths.     

Seismic Cycles and Trend Predictions of Earthquakes in Sumatra–Andaman and Burmese Subduction Zones using Temporal b-value and Hurst Analysis

The annual b-value fluctuation patterns in Burmese subduction zone and Andaman–Sumatra subduction zone are evaluated from earthquake data (January 1990 to June 2016; Mw ³ 4.3) to identify seismic cycles with sequential dynamic phases as described in the ‘elastic failure model’ of Main et al. (1989). Two seismic cycles have been identified in Andaman–Sumatra subduction zone, one started in 1990 and ended on 2004 with occurrence of great Sumatra earthquake (Mw 9.0) and the other started in 2005 and continuing till date with the phase of crack coalescence and fluid diffusion (3A&B). Similarly, the subduction zone of Burma shows evidence of one incomplete seismic cycle within 1990–2016 and presently undergoing the crack coalescence and fluid diffusion (3A&B) phase. The analysis has prompted to subdivide the area into thirteen smaller seismic blocks (A to M) to analyse area specific seismic trend and vulnerability analysis employing Hurst Statistics. Hurst plots with the dynamic phases of ‘elastic failure model’ of earthquake generation is compared to assess the blocks with high seismic vulnerability. The analysis suggest that north Andaman zone (block G) and north Burma fold belt (block M) are seismically most vulnerable. Moreover, the seismic vulnerability of Tripura fold belt and Bangladesh plain (block K) is equally high.     

Density inhomogeneity of the lithosphere in the southeastern periphery of the North Asian craton

The study addresses the space distribution of lithospheric density contrasts in 3D and 2D surface (spherical) sources of gravity anomalies to depths of 120 km below the geoid surface and their relationship with shallow deformation and Archean, Early Paleozoic, and Late Mesozoic geodynamic environments. The lithospheric section in northeastern Transbaikalia and the Upper Amur region includes two layers of low-density gradients attendant with low seismic velocities and low electrical resistivity. The lower layer at depths of 80–120 km is attributed to an asthenospheric upwarp that extends beneath the North Asian craton from the Emuershan volcanic belt and the Songliao basin. The concentric pattern of density contrasts in the middle and lower crust beneath the Upper Amur region may be produced by the activity of the Aldan-Zeya plume, which spatially correlates with the geometry of the asthenospheric upwarp as well as with the regional seismicity field, magnetic and heat flow anomalies, and stresses caused by large earthquakes and recent vertical crustal movements. The relationship between shallow and deep structures in the crust and upper mantle bears signature of horizontal displacement (subduction) of the lower crust of the Baikal-Vitim and Amur superterranes beneath the North Asian craton.     

Fluid migration and fluid seepage in the Connemara Field,Porcupine Basin interpreted from industrial 3D seismic and well data combined with high-resolution site survey data

This study documents the suite of processes associated with source-to-seafloor fluid migration in the Connemara field area on the basis of 3D seismic data, well logs, 2D high-resolution seismic profiles, subbottom profiles, short cores and sidescan sonar data. The combination of datasets yields details about fluid migration pathways in the deep subsurface, in the unlithified shallow subsurface and about the distribution of fluid and gas seeps (pockmarks) at the sea floor. The Connemara field area is characterized by vertical fluid migration pathways (“seismic chimneys” or “gas chimneys”) that extend from the top of the Jurassic sequence, cross-cutting the entire Cretaceous sequence to the Upper Tertiary deposits over a vertical distance of up to 1.5 km. Their localization is mainly structurally controlled to the crest of tilted fault blocks along the main hydrocarbon migration pathways. These chimneys are important conduits for focused vertical fluid/gas flow from the deep to the shallow subsurface. However, gas seeps (pockmarks) at the sea floor are almost randomly distributed, which indicates a change from focused to diffuse fluid/gas migration in shallow, unconsolidated sediment. Where the vertical chimneys reach up to unlithified Eocene to Miocene sands, widespread deformation, interpreted as fluidization, occurs around the main conduit. This deformation affects about 32% of the entire unconsolidated Tertiary section (Late Eocene – Miocene). A Plio-Pleistocene glaciomarine drift with up to five horizons with iceberg ploughmarks seals the Tertiary sands. In the near surface sediments it is observed that gas accumulation occurs preferentially at iceberg ploughmarks. It is inferred that lateral migration at five levels of randomly oriented ploughmarks dispersed gas over larger areas and caused random pockmark distribution at the sea floor, independent from the underlying focused migration pathways. This study demonstrates that fluid flow migration changes from structurally controlled focused flow in the deep consolidated subsurface to diffuse flow, controlled by sediment variability, in the shallow subsurface. This result is relevant to a better understanding of the distribution of seepage-induced features at the seafloor related to focused hydrocarbon migration pathways known from industry data and fluid flow modeling.     

南北地震带南段震源空间分布特征及其构造意义

大陆浅源地震震源空间分布可以看作是一种地球物理特征,大量震源的空间位置数据可用来刻划大陆地壳结构。通过研究南北地震带南段震源的空间分布特征,发现研究区震源深度分布在横向上的疏密变化与地质构造特征相对应。剖面震源分布等密度图显示,中、下地壳不同深度广泛分布着多震层。多震层的分布与地壳低速、低阻层具有相关性,多震层一般位于低速、低阻层的上方。中地壳层次的低速、低阻层很可能是壳内滑脱层,是韧性下地壳与脆性上地壳发生拆离解耦的构造层次;下地壳低速、低阻层是部分熔融、含流体的韧性流变层;壳内多震层的构造属性应是上地壳硬的脆性层,容易发生突然破裂,产生地震。低速、低阻层是大陆板块内部上地壳脆性层构造过程的主控因素,包括对大陆内部浅源地震的控制;因此,在低速、低阻层之上往往形成多震层,越是活动性强的低速、低阻层,其上多震层震源密度越高。南北地震带南段不同层圈和块体之间的差异运动控制了其地壳层次的构造活动,包括大量地震的发生,其中,下地壳流层与上地壳脆性层的差异运动在中地壳层次发生剪切拆离是最重要的因素。     

Seismotectonics of the transitional region from the Baikal Rift Zone to orogenic rise of the Stanovoi range

This paper is based on the data obtained during the field study of active faults carried out in 2005–2006 in the Chita and Amur oblast and South Yakutia in connection with detailed seismic demarcation of the projected East Siberia-Pacific Ocean pipeline route. The comprehensive geomorphic and geophysical fieldwork was focused on paleoseismogeology and accompanied by trenching in the zones of reactivated faults. These works allowed us to specify the available information on the present-day structure, seismotectonic regime, and potential seismic hazard of the conjugation of the Baikal Rift Zone and the arched-block rise of the Stanovoi Ridge.     

Development of Overpressure in the Tertiary Damintun Depression, Liaohe Basin, Northern China

The Damintun depression is one of the four depressions in the Liaohe basin in northern China, and is a rift basin developed in the Paleogene. This paper discusses in detail the characteristics of pressure and fluid potential of the Damintun depression based on a synthesis of the data from boreholes, well tests and seismic surveys. Data from sonic logs, well tests and seismic velocity measurements are used to study the pressure characteristics of the areas. From the sonic log data, shales can be characterized as normally pressured, slightly overpressured or highly overpressured; from the well test data, the pressure-depth gradient in oil-producing intervals implies hydrostatic pressure in general. Most seismic profiles in the Damintun depression are of sufficiently high quality for seismic velocities to be measured. The fluid pressures, excess pressures and pressure coefficients in 47 representative seismic profiles are predicted using formula calculation methods, and further transformed to fluid potenti     

靖远矿区地震勘探中存在的问题浅析

通过总结靖远矿区近十年三维地震勘探经验,对该区施工投入的仪器及观测系统参数进行对比,指出该区前期地震勘探中存在的问题,如：块段施工及分块处理,造成相邻区块之间相邻线上波组特征变化大,解释自相矛盾,对比困难,甚至出现构造假象;某些地震剖面记录虽具有明显同相轴错断、上下盘断点清晰、落差大等逆断层特征,但后期采煤揭露仅为一褶曲,仅部分地段存在小断层;在向斜勘探区,因侧面波的影响,往往导致主测线与联络测线上反射波特征差异明显,特别是远离向斜轴的测线,在侧面波终止处,会出现断层特征,造成误判。针对上述问题,提出了应广泛应用高精度地震勘探,加强验证资料的总结与分析,进而提高勘探水平,为矿方提供更好服务的建议。     

The composition and structure of the deep crust of the Capricorn Orogen

Understanding how the Australian continent came together requires an understanding of structure in all levels of the lithosphere. Deep seismic reflection profiles across several Proterozoic orogens have revealed entirely buried tectonic elements, termed seismic provinces. Although undoubtedly important, the nature of these seismic provinces is typically not well characterised. The Capricorn Orogen is one such region, where the upper crust is relatively well known from geological and geophysical studies, but much of the deep crust is buried beneath Proterozoic basins. Here we combine geophysical datasets, including active and passive source seismic data and gravity data, to image the density, seismic velocity and compositional structure of the deep crust of the Capricorn Orogen. Crustal structure interpreted from deep seismic reflection studies is re-scaled using velocity information from receiver function studies. This modified geometry is used to construct a density model that satisfies Bouguer gravity data. Finally, after correcting for temperature and pressure dependencies, the velocity and density information is used to generate a compositional model of the orogen. This model indicates a varied structure with at least four distinct blocks between the Yilgarn and Pilbara cratons, bounded by major shear zones. We suggest that this variation is linked to multiple accretion events during the amalgamation of the West Australian Craton.     

离散介质中地震波传播的本构问题

实际地球介质是相当复杂的.基于均匀的、连续介质模型建立的弹性波动理论可能导致对地球结构地震响应的不当解释, 有时可能是错误解释.由于没有更接近实际地球介质模型的波动理论, 许多有用的地震信息因得不到合理解释, 被作为噪音处理了.从等效介质角度来看, 储层介质可以划分为弹性区、粘性区、空白区(空白区是由孔隙、裂隙、结构面产生的介质性质弱化区) 组成的离散介质.在局部平均思想的指导下, 利用区间内聚定理建立起离散(储层) 介质的本构关系, 为建立更接近实际地球介质模型的波动理论提供了力学基础.      

Structure and Folding of the Kiselyovka-Manoma Accretionary Complex in the Lower Amur Region,Russian Far East

The Kiselyovka-Manoma accretionary complex, formed at the end of the Early Cretaceous, is a part of the Early Cretaceous Khingan-Okhotsk active continental margin. It is located at the front of the Amur accretionary complex and is composed of Jurassic-Lower Cretaceous oceanic volcanic-siliceous deposits. The structural study of this complex in the Lower Amur region hSas made it possible to clarify its overall structure and to subdivide the folds with different morphologies and orientations into five types. The analyzed folding sequence is compared to the folds of the Amur accretionary complex. The fold kinematics indicates various senses of motions that do not reveal systematic kinematic patterns of stacking of the accreted tectonic slices.     

Seismic landslide simulations in discontinuous deformation analysis

Discontinuous deformation analysis (DDA) is a numerical approach used to simulate the post-failure behavior of a blocky assembly. Three available algorithms incorporate seismic impacts into DDA simulations for earthquake-induced slope failure. The following methods are used: directly applying time-dependent accelerations to falling/sliding blocks (Method 1); adding time-dependent accelerations to base block (Method 2); and time-dependently constraining seismic displacements of the base block (Method 3). However, incorrect absolute movements of falling/sliding and base blocks were obtained using Method 1. Additionally, relative movements between falling/sliding blocks and the base block are opposite to those simulated by the other two algorithms—Methods 2 and 3. Since locating an earthquake-induced landslide before an earthquake is extremely difficult, the seismic movements of base rock are recorded. Method 1 applies recorded seismic data to sliding blocks in conflict with d’Alembert’s principle of mechanics. Additionally, in Method 2, when the computation time step must be longer than the time in seismic data, computational results reveal abnormal base block displacements due to the non-zero velocity recorded at the end time of seismic data in seismic DDA. In this study, a novel algorithm to diminish the velocity of the base rock in the seismic analysis is utilized to modify Method 2. Furthermore, this work confirms that DDA with the modified Methods 2 and 3 is a practical approach for earthquake-induced landslide simulations.     

Mud volcano eruptions and earthquakes in the Northern Apennines and Sicily, Italy

The relations between earthquakes and the eruption of mud volcanoes have been investigated at the Pede–Apennine margin of the Northern Apennines and in Sicily. Some of these volcanoes experienced eruptions or increased activity in connection with historical seismic events, showing a good correlation with established thresholds of hydrological response (liquefaction) to earthquakes. However, the majority of eruptions have been documented to be independent of seismic activity, being mud volcanoes often not activated even when the earthquakes were of suitable magnitude and the epicentre at the proper distance for the triggering. This behaviour suggests that paroxysmal activity of mud volcanoes depends upon the reaching of a specific critical state dictated by internal fluid pressure, and implies that the strain caused by the passage of seismic waves can activate only mud volcanoes in near-critical conditions (i.e., close to the eruption). Seismogenic faults, such as the Pede–Apennine thrust, often structurally control the fluid reservoirs of mud volcanoes, which are frequently located at the core of thrust-related folds. Such an intimate link enables mud volcanoes to represent features potentially suitable for recording perturbations associated with the past and ongoing tectonic activity of the controlling fault system.     

Geophysical images of the creeping segment of the San Andreas fault: implications for the role of crustal fluids in the earthquake process

High-resolution magnetotelluric (MT) studies of the San Andreas fault (SAF) near Hollister, CA have imaged a zone of high fluid content flanking the San Andreas fault and extending to midcrustal depths. This zone, extending northeastward to the Calaveras fault, is imaged as several focused regions of high conductivity, believed to be the expression of tectonically bound fluid pockets separated by northeast dipping, impermeable fault seals. Furthermore, the spatial relationship between this zone and local seismicity suggests that where present, fluids inhibit seismicity within the upper crust (0–4 km). The correlation of coincident seismic and electromagnetic tomography models is used to sharply delineate geologic and tectonic boundaries. These studies show that the San Andreas fault plane is vertical below 2 km depth, bounding the southwest edge of the imaged fault-zone conductor (FZC). Thus, in the region of study, the San Andreas fault acts both as a conduit for along-strike fluid flow and a barrier for fluid flow across the fault. Combined with previous work, these results suggest that the geologic setting of the San Andreas fault gives rise to the observed distribution of fluids in and surrounding the fault, as well as the observed along-strike variation in seismicity.     

基于AVO的属性分析

针对川中地区砂体分布多,气藏分布在砂体的那个位置很难确定这一情况,对叠前数据用AVO中的Lambda-Mu-Rho技术获得流体的不可压缩性和硬度。同时对道集模型进行AVO分析处理,总结出不同流体饱和度情况下的地震响应特征;将分析结果与实际井旁道地震资料对比,从而建立可靠的储集层性质与地震响应特征的对应关系,为从地震资料中提取储集层参数提供了依据。利用Biot-gassman流体替换模型,分别求得模型在含油砂岩、含气砂岩和含水砂岩时的对应响应,即获得了多个点的截距-梯度交汇图。然后利用用AVO流体反演定量的得到流体的可能性分布,根据这些叠前属性再结合叠后反演的多个属性,综合评定了该区的气藏分布情况,通过已钻遇的井证实了预测的可靠性,该方法充分的应用了地震的叠前信息,解决了叠后反演所不能解决的流体分布预测问题,在砂体范围内找含流体可能性最大的砂,从而降低了勘探风险。     

Major crustal boundaries of Australia,and their significance in mineral systems targeting

For over 35 years, deep seismic reflection profiles have been acquired routinely across Australia to better understand the crustal architecture and geodynamic evolution of key geological provinces and basins. Major crustal-scale breaks have been interpreted in some of the profiles, and are often inferred to be relict sutures between different crustal blocks, as well as sometimes being important conduits for mineralising fluids to reach the upper crust. The widespread coverage of the seismic profiles now allows the construction of a new map of major crustal boundaries across Australia, which will better define the architecture of the crustal blocks in three dimensions. It also enables a better understanding of how the Australian continent was constructed from the Mesoarchean through to the Phanerozoic, and how this evolution and these boundaries have controlled metallogenesis. Starting with the locations in 3D of the crustal breaks identified in the seismic profiles, geological (e.g. outcrop mapping, drill hole, geochronology, isotope) and geophysical (e.g. gravity, aeromagnetic, magnetotelluric) data are used to map the crustal boundaries, in plan view, away from the seismic profiles. Some of the boundaries mapped are subsurface boundaries, and, in many cases, occur several kilometres below the surface; hence they will not match directly with structures mapped at the surface. For some of these boundaries, a high level of confidence can be placed on the location, whereas the location of other boundaries can only be considered to have medium or low confidence. In other areas, especially in regions covered by thick sedimentary successions, the locations of some crustal boundaries are essentially unconstrained, unless they have been imaged by a seismic profile. From the Mesoarchean to the Phanerozoic, the continent formed by the amalgamation of many smaller crustal blocks over a period of nearly 3 billion years. The identification of crustal boundaries in Australia, and the construction of an Australia-wide GIS dataset and map, will help to constrain tectonic models and plate reconstructions for the geological evolution of Australia, and will provide constraints on the three dimensional architecture of Australia. Deep crustal-penetrating structures, particularly major crustal boundaries, are important conduits to transport mineralising fluids from the mantle and lower crust into the upper crust. There are several greenfields regions across Australia where deep crustal-penetrating structures have been imaged in seismic sections, and have potential as possible areas for future mineral systems exploration.     

Structure and evolution of the Cauvery Shear Zone system, Southern Granulite Terrain, India: Evidence from deep seismic and other geophysical studies

The Southern Granulite Terrain with exposed Archean lower crustal rocks is studied using various geophysical tools. The crustal structure derived from seismic reflection and refraction/wide-angle reflection studies is used to understand the tectonic evolution of the region. Deep seismic reflection section along the Kolattur–Palani segment shows an oppositely dipping reflection fabric near the Moyar–Bhavani shear zone, which is interpreted as a signature of collision between the Dharwar craton and another crustal block in the south. The thickened crust due to collision was delaminated during the orogenic collapse and modified the central part, covering the Cauvery Shear Zone system, located between the Moyar–Bhavani and Karur–Oddanchatram shear zones. The delaminated lower crust is altered by magmatic underplating as evidenced by the high velocity layer just above the Moho. The velocity model of the region indicates crustal thickening at the boundary of the Dharwar craton and Moyar–Bhavani shear zone and thinning further south. Back-scattered seismic wave field with negative moveout and the Moho-offset indicate the spatial location and strike-slip nature of the shear zones. Present study suggests that the late Archean collision and suturing of the Dharwar craton with the southern crustal block at the Moyar–Bhavani shear zone may be responsible for the evolution of late Archean granulites. Late Neoproterozoic rifting is observed along the paleo-fault zones. The seismic studies constrained by gravity, magnetic and magnetotelluric data suggest that the Moyar–Bhavani and Karur–Oddanchatram shear zones of the Cauvery Shear Zone system mark terrane boundaries/suture zones.     

Palynological characterization of the Paleocene Wuyun formation, People’s Republic of China

The Wuyun deposit of brown coal is situated on the right bank of the Amur River in the People’s Republic of China, 35–60 km away from the Arkhara-Boguchan brown coal deposit. The Belaya Gora stratotype of the latter and the southwestern flanks of the Raichikhinsk brown coal field (Russia) have been studied previously when the author analyzed in detail the Danian and Selandian-Thanetian palynoassemblages from the Upper Tsagayan Subformation. A section of the Wuyun Formation was studied at the eponymous deposit in 2002 and 2004. Based on new palynological results and analysis of data from earlier publications, two palynoassemblages distinguished there in the Paleocene coal-bearing succession enable correlation between sections of relevant deposits on the right and left banks of the Amur River. Data on the taxonomic composition of palynoassemblages are considered, and their basic and characteristic taxa are figured in paleontological plates.