U–Th–Pb monazite dating and the timing of arc–continent collision in East Timor

The Timor Orogen represents one of the youngest arc–continent collisions exposed on the Earth. It has the potential to provide some of the key parameters about how this style of orogeny evolves. However, the metamorphic age of the highest-grade rocks formed in the collision remains controversial. Using U–Th–Pb dating of monazite from amphibolite-grade sillimanite and garnet-bearing schists we show the peak metamorphism occurred at 5.5–4.7 Ma. The young age of the monazite and the presence of significant amounts of common Pb required the development of a new protocol to simultaneously account for the ²³⁰Th disequilibrium and the ²⁰⁷Pb common Pb correction. The new estimate of metamorphic age is consistent with the estimates based on plate reconstructions for the initiation of arc–continent collision in East Timor. The metamorphic event is a result of this collision.     

Archaean gold mineralization synchronous with late cratonization of the Western Dharwar Craton,India: 2.52 Ga U–Pb ages of hydrothermal monazite and xenotime in gold deposits

New zircon U–Pb ages for a felsic volcanic rock (2,588 ± 10 Ma) and an intrusive granite (≥2,555 ± 6 Ma) in the Gadag greenstone belt in the Western Dharwar Craton, southern India, are similar to dates for equivalent rocks in the Eastern Dharwar Craton and indicates docking of the two cratons prior to this time. The zircons in the intrusive granite are strongly overprinted, and coexisting titanites yielded two different age populations: the dominant group gives an age of 2,566 ± 7 Ma, interpreted as the emplacement age, whereas the minor group gives an age of 2,516 ± 10 Ma, reflecting a hydrothermal overprint. In situ U–Pb dating of monazite and xenotime in gold reefs of the Gadag (2,522 ± 6 Ma) and Ajjanahalli (2,520 ± 9 Ma) gold deposits reveal a previously undated episode of gold mineralization at 2.52 Ga, substantially younger than the 2.55 Ga Hutti deposit in the eastern Dharwar Craton. The new dates confirm that both the younger greenstone belts and lode gold mineralization in the Dharwar Craton are about 100–120 My, younger than in other well-dated Archaean cratons. Although gold mineralization across the craton postdates most of the magmatic activity and metamorphism at upper crustal levels, widespread thermal reworking of the lower-middle crust, involving partial melting, metamorphism, and lower crustal granitoid intrusion, occurred concurrently with gold mineralization. It is likely that the large-scale hydrothermal fluid flow that produced widespread gold deposition was also part of this tectono-thermal event during the final stages of cratonization of the Dharwar Craton in southern India.     

Fluid-mediated partial alteration in monazite: the role of coupled dissolution–reprecipitation in element redistribution and mass transfer

Monazite [(Ce,LREE,Th,U,Ca)(P,Si)O₄], with complex zoning in Th and other elements, is commonly observed in metamorphic and igneous rocks. The hypothesis that this alteration is a product of fluid-mediated element mass transfer has been tested in the piston-cylinder press (CaF₂ assembly, cylindrical graphite oven) at 1,000 MPa and 900°C and in cold seal autoclaves on a hydrothermal line at 500 MPa and 600°C. Experiments included a relatively homogeneous monazite-(Ce) (7–8 wt% ThO₂) from a heavy mineral sand plus a series of alkali-bearing fluids including 2N NaOH, 2N KOH, and Na₂Si₂O₅ + H₂O. Experiments were conducted using BSE imaging, EMP analysis, and both TEM and HRTEM. A subset of monazite grains from each experiment show evidence of partial alteration in the form of areas enriched in Th + Si with sharp curvilinear compositional boundaries extending from the grain rim into the monazite interior. These ThSiO₄-enriched textures are similar to those commonly seen in natural examples of metasomatised monazite in both magmatic and metamorphic rocks. In the Na₂Si₂O₅ + H₂O experiments, scarce inclusions of britholite formed in the altered monazite. The altered monazite is also characterised by strong depletion in Pb, Ca, and Y. Thorium and Si mobility, coupled with the formation of britholite inclusions, during partial alteration in the monazite grain is considered to be the product of fluid-aided coupled dissolution–reprecipitation as opposed to solid-state diffusion. Since other fluids, including NaCl and KCl brines, do not result in the formation of these textures, the experimental replication of ThSiO₄-enriched areas in the monazite strongly suggests that similar textures in monazite observed in nature are fluid induced, specifically by alkali-bearing fluids. If true, complex metasomatically induced textures in monazite could yield information concerning the nature of the fluid responsible for their formation as well as allow for the dating of the metasomatic event, presuming that all the original radiogenic Pb has been removed.     

An experimental study of dissolution–reprecipitation in fluorapatite: fluid infiltration and the formation of monazite

In a series of timed experiments, monazite inclusions are induced to form in the Durango fluorapatite using 1 and 2 N HCl and H₂SO₄ solutions at temperatures of 300, 600, and 900°C and pressures of 500 and 1,000 MPa. The monazite inclusions form only in reacted areas, i.e. depleted in (Y+REE)+Si+Na+S+Cl. In the HCl experiments, the reaction front between the reacted and unreacted regions is sharp, whereas in the H₂SO₄ experiments it ranges from sharp to diffuse. In the 1 N HCl experiments, Ostwald ripening of the monazite inclusions took place both as a function of increased reaction time as well as increased temperature and pressure. Monazite growth was more sluggish in the H₂SO₄ experiments. Transmission electron microscopic (TEM) investigation of foils cut across the reaction boundary in a fluorapatite from the 1 N HCl experiment (600°C and 500 MPa) indicate that the reacted region along the reaction front is characterized by numerous, sub-parallel, 10–20 nm diameter nano-channels. TEM investigation of foils cut from a reacted region in a fluorapatite from the 1 N H₂SO₄ experiment at 900°C and 1,000 MPa indicates a pervasive nano-porosity, with the monazite inclusions being in direct contact with the surrounding fluorapatite. For either set of experiments, reacted areas in the fluorapatite are interpreted as replacement reactions, which proceed via a moving interface or reaction front associated with what is essentially a simultaneous dissolution–reprecipitation process. The formation of a micro- and nano-porosity in the metasomatised regions of the fluorapatite allows fluids to permeate the reacted areas. This permits rapid mass transfer in the form of fluid-aided diffusion of cations to and from the growing monazite inclusions. Nano-channels and nano-pores also serve as sites for nucleation and the subsequent growth of the monazite inclusions.     

On wave–current interaction by the Green–Naghdi equations in shallow water

This work is on the use of the Green–Naghdi (GN) nonlinear wave equations for simulating wave–current interaction in shallow water. The stream-function wave theory is used at the wave-maker boundary to generate nonlinear incident waves to consider the wave–current interaction. The nonlinear GN equations are solved in the time domain by use of the finite-difference method. The model is evaluated with data from three experimental studies. A strong opposing current over a submerged bar is investigated in the first test case. In the second test case, the interaction of waves with a uniform current over flat bottom is considered. In the third case, wave–current interaction over a variable bathymetry with the following and opposing currents is studied. The numerical results obtained by the GN equations are compared with the experimental data and results based on the Boussinesq equations. A good agreement is obtained for the three experimental studies considered for a wide range of wave and current conditions.     

Discovery of Ordovician–Silurian metamorphic monazite in garnet metapelites of the Alpine External Aiguilles Rouges Massif

The pre-Mesozoic, mainly Variscan metamorphic basement of the Col de Bérard area (Aiguilles Rouges Massif, External domain) consists of paragneisses and micaschists together with various orthogneisses and metabasites. Monazite in metapelites was analysed by the electron microprobe (EMPA-CHIME) age dating method. The monazites in garnet micaschists are dominantly of Variscan age (330–300 Ma). Garnet in these rocks displays well developed growth zonations in Fe–Mg–Ca–Mn and crystallized at maximal temperatures of 670°C/7 kbar to the west and 600°C/7–8 kbar to the east. In consequence the monazite is interpreted to date a slightly pressure-dominated Variscan amphibolite-facies evolution. In mylonitic garnet gneisses, large metamorphic monazite grains of Ordovician–Silurian (~440 Ma) age but also small monazite grains of Variscan (~300 Ma) age were discovered. Garnets in the mylonitic garnet gneisses display high-temperature homogenized Mg-rich profiles in their cores and crystallized near to ~800°C/6 kbar. The Ordovician–Silurian-age monazites can be assigned to a pre-Variscan high-temperature event recorded by the homogenised garnets. These monazite age data confirm Ordovician–Silurian and Devonian–Carboniferous metamorphic cycles which were already reported from other Alpine domains and further regions in the internal Variscides.     

Monazite–xenotime thermochronometry: methodology and an example from the Nepalese Himalaya

Monazite-xenotime thermochronometry involves the integration of petrographic, geochronological, and geochemical techniques to explore the thermal evolution of igneous and metamorphic rocks containing these accessory minerals. The method is illustrated in this paper by application to an orthogneiss sample from the Everest region of the Nepalese Himalaya that contains leucogranitic segregations produced by in-situ anatexis. Observations of phase relationships and the internal structure of accessory minerals made using both transmitted light and electron microscopy revealed the existence of multiple generations of monazite and xenotime and guided microsampling efforts to isolate grain fragments of Himalayan (Tertiary) and pre-Himalayan age. Nearly concordant U-Pb isotopic ratios for 13 single monazite and xenotime grains ranged in age from 28.37 to 17.598 Ma, making determination of the timing of anatexis difficult without additional information. Presuming that monazite and xenotime were in equilibrium over that entire interval, temperatures estimated from the yttrium contents of dated monazites range from 677-535 °C. Only the highest temperatures are consistent with experimental constraints on the conditions necessary to produce anatectic melts of appropriate composition, implying that the ~25.4-24.8 Ma dates for the grains with high apparent equilibration temperatures provide the best estimates for the age of anatexis. Two monazite crystals yielded ²⁰⁷Pb/²³⁵U dates that are statistically indistinguishable from the ²⁰⁷Pb/²³⁵U dates of coexisting xenotime crystals, permitting the application of both quantitative Y-partitioning and semi-quantitative Nd-partitioning thermometers as a cross-check for internal consistency. One of these sub-populations of accessory minerals, with a mean ²⁰⁷Pb/²³⁵U date of 22.364ǂ.097 Ma, provides inconsistent Y-partitioning (641ᆻ °C) and Nd-partitioning (515-560 °C) temperatures. We suspect the discrepancy may be caused by the high Th concentration (6.12 wt% ThO₂) in this subpopulation's monazite. The Y-partitioning thermometer was derived from experimental data for the (Ce, Y)PO₄ binary and may be inappropriate for application to high-Th monazites. For the other subpopulation (mean ²⁰⁷Pb/²³⁵U date=22.11ǂ.22 Ma), the Y- and Nd-partitioning temperatures are indistinguishable: 535ᇅ and 525-550 °C, respectively. This consistency strongly suggests that the sample experienced a temperature of ~535 °C at 22.11 Ma. This finding is tectonically important because temperatures at higher structural levels were much higher (by ~100 °C) at the same time, lending support to earlier suggestions of a major structural discontinuity within the upper part of the Himalayan metamorphic core at this longitude. An additional finding of uncertain importance is that inherited monazite and xenotime yielded U-Pb discordia with indistinguishable upper intercept ages (465.5NJ.7 and 470ᆟ Ma, respectively) and application of the Y-partitioning thermometer to the inherited monazites produced a restricted range of model temperatures averaging 470 °C. Whether or not these temperatures are geologically meaningful is unclear without independent corroboration of the assumption of equilibrium between the inherited monazites and xenotimes, but it appears that monazite-xenotime thermochronometry may be useful for "seeing through" high-grade metamorphism to extract temperature-time information about inherited mineral suites.     

The enhanced element enrichment in the supercritical states of granite–pegmatite systems

In this paper, we show that supercritical fluids have a greater significance in the generation of pegmatites, and for ore-forming processes related to granites than is usually assumed. We show that the supercritical melt or fluid is a silicate phase in which volatiles; principally H₂O are completely miscible in all proportions at magmatic temperatures and pressures. This phase evolves from felsic melts and changes into hydrothermal fluids, and its unique properties are particularly important in sequestering and concentrating low abundance elements, such as metals. In our past research, we have focused on processes observed at upper crustal levels, however extensive work by us and other researchers have demonstrated that supercritical melt/fluids should be abundant in melting zones at deep-crustal levels too. We propose that these fluids may provide a connecting link between lower and upper crustal magmas, and a highly efficient transport mechanism for usually melt incompatible elements. In this paper, we explore the unique features of this fluid which allow the partitioning of various elements and compounds, potentially up to extreme levels, and may explain various features both of mineralization and the magmas that produced them.

     

A Raman spectroscopic study on the structural disorder of monazite–(Ce)

This study addresses whether Raman spectra can be used to estimate the degree of accumulated radiation damage in monazite-(Ce) samples whose chemical composition was previously determined. Our results indicate that the degree of disorder in monazite–(Ce), as observed from increasing Raman band broadening, generally depends on both the structural state (i.e., radiation damage) and the chemical composition (i.e., incorporation of non-formula elements). The chemical effects were studied on synthetic orthophosphates grown using the Li-Mo flux method, and non radiation-damaged analogues of the naturally radiation-damaged monazite–(Ce) samples, produced by dry annealing. We found that the “chemical” Raman-band broadening of natural monazite–(Ce) can be predicted by the empirical formula, $$ {\hbox{FWHM}} {\hbox{[c}}{{\hbox{m}}^{ - {1}}}{]} = {3}{.95} + {26}{.66} \times {\hbox{(Th}} + {\hbox{U}} + {\hbox{Ca}} + {\hbox{Pb)}} {\hbox{[apfu]}} $$ where, FWHM = full width at half maximum of the main Raman band of monazite–(Ce) (i.e., the symmetric PO₄ stretching near 970?cm^?1), and (Th+U+Ca+Pb) = sum of the four elements in apfu (atoms per formula unit). Provided the chemical composition of a natural monazite–(Ce) is known, this “chemical band broadening” can be used to estimate the degree of structural radiation damage from the observed FWHM of the ν₁(PO₄) band of that particular sample using Raman spectroscopy. Our annealing studies on a wide range of monazite–(Ce) reference materials and other monazite–(Ce) samples confirmed that this mineral virtually never becomes highly radiation damaged. Potential advantages and the practical use of the proposed method in the Earth sciences are discussed.     

Permian ultrahigh–temperature reworking in the southern Chinese Altai: Evidence from petrology,P–T estimates,zircon and monazite U–Th–Pb geochronology

The Chinese Altai orogen formed in the Paleozoic is an important part of the Central Asian Orogenic Belt (CAOB), and the study on the metamorphism will provide novel and robust constraints on its tectonic evolution. In this study, we investigate our newly recognized garnet–orthopyroxene–cordierite granulites at Wuqiagou area in the southern Chinese Altai. Detailed petrographic study and P–T estimates suggest four distinct metamorphic stages of mineral assemblages: (1) pre–peak (M1) stage containing the spinel–cordierite–bearing association or biotite–plagioclase–quartz–bearing inclusion–phase assemblage, with P–T conditions of 3.0–4.0 kbar/700–750 °C; (2) peak ultrahigh–temperature (UHT) (M2) stage represented by relatively coarse–grained garnet–orthopyroxene–cordierite–bearing porphyroblastic assemblage, with high–Al₂O₃ contents (up to ∼8.7 wt%) in orthopyroxene and P–T conditions of ∼8.0 kbar/∼980 °C; (3) post–peak high–temperature granulite facies (M3) stage consisted of orthopyroxene–cordierite and cordierite–quartz corona assemblages, formed during cooling and moderate decompression; and (4) post–peak upper amphibolite facies (M4) stage represented by retrograde biotite–plagioclase–quartz intergrowths. These four discrete metamorphic stages define an anticlockwise P–T path involving a post–peak moderate decompression followed by nearly isobaric cooling process. LA–ICP–MS U–Pb age dating results of metamorphic zircons for UHT samples show two weighted mean ages of ∼390 Ma and ∼280 Ma. We propose that the M1 stage might occur in the middle Devonian, whereas the near–peak UHT stage probably occurred in the early Permian. The Permian UHT metamorphism was further supported by the monazite U–Th–Pb dating results (287.9 ± 2.1 Ma), reflecting a prominent HT–UHT reworking event in the late Paleozoic. We proposed that the Permian UHT reworking event in the southern Chinese Altai probably occurred in a post–orogenic or intraplate extensional tectonic setting associated with the input of external heat, related to the underplating of deep–derived magma as a result of the Tarim mantle plume activity.     

Analyzing state-dependent model–data comparison in multi-regime systems

An approach to analyze regime change in spatial time series datasets is followed and extended to jointly analyze a dynamical model depicting regime shift and observational data informing the same process. We analyze changes in the joint model–data regime and covariability within each regime. The method is applied to two observational datasets of equatorial sea surface temperature (TAO/TRITON array and satellite) and compared with the predicted data by the ECCO-JPL modeling system.     

U–Pb zircon and monazite age constraints on granulite-facies metamorphism and deformation in the Strangways Metamorphic Complex (central Australia)

The age of Proterozoic granulite facies metamorphism and deformation in the Strangways Metamorphic Complex (SMC) of central Australia is determined on zircon grown in syn-metamorphic and syn-deformational orthopyroxene-bearing, enderbitic, veins. SHRIMP zircon studies suggest that M ₁–M ₂ and the correlated periods of intense deformation (D ₁–D ₂) are part of a single tectonothermal event between 1,717±2 and 1,732±7 Ma. It is considered unlikely that the two metamorphic phases (M ₁, M ₂) suggested by earlier work represent separate events occurring within 10–25 Ma of each other. Previous higher estimates for the age of M ₁ granulite metamorphism in the SMC (Early Strangways event at ca. 1,770 Ma) based on U–Pb zircon dating of granitic, intrusive rocks, are not believed to relate to the metamorphism, but to represent pre-metamorphic intrusion ages. Conventional multi-grain U–Pb monazite analyses on high-grade metasediments from three widely spaced localities in the western SMC yield ²⁰⁷Pb/ ²³⁵U ages between 1,728±11 and 1,712±2 Ma. The age range of the monazites corresponds to the SHRIMP zircon ages in the granulitic veins and is interpreted to record monazite growth (prograde in the metasedimentary rocks). The data imply a maximum time-span of 30 Ma for high-grade metamorphism and deformation in the SMC. There is, thus, no evidence for an extremely long period of continuous high-temperature conditions from 1,770 to ca. 1,720 Ma as previously proposed. The results firmly establish that the SMC has a very different high-grade metamorphic history than the neighbouring Harts Range, where upper amphibolite facies metamorphism in the Palaeozoic caused widespread growth or recrystallization of monazite.     

137Cs and 90Sr mobility in soils and transfer in soil–plant systems in the Novozybkov district affected by the Chernobyl accident

The Chernobyl radionuclides distribution and mobility in soils and uptake by plants have been studied in seminatural and agricultural moraine and in fluvioglacial landscapes typical for the areas of the Bryansk region affected by the accident.The major part of the Chernobyl ¹³⁷Cs accumulated in the topsoil is insoluble in water, 40 to 93% of this radionuclide is strongly fixed by soil, while 70 to 90% of the ⁹⁰Sr is present in water soluble, exchangeable and weak-acid soluble forms. Radionuclide vertical migration is most pronounced in local depressions with organic and gley soils in which both radionuclides are detected to the depth of 30–40 cm.In woodlands, most of the ¹³⁷Cs is still fixed in litter and the upper mineral soil layer. The concentration peak in litter has moved to the lower AOF layer. Concentration in topsoil leads to high radionuclide uptake by forest species with shallow root systems (bilberry, mushrooms, fern). Contaminated forest products may contribute considerably to the internal irradiation doses of the local population. On flood plain grasslands traditionally used by local populations for haycrops and grazing, radionuclides are more strongly fixed in soils with fine texture. Radioisotope uptake by plants decreases in the order: legumes>herbs>grasses. Transfer to grasses in local depressions is usually higher compared with the dry levees. Observed exclusions are assumed to be due to comparatively low mobility of ¹³⁷Cs and relatively high K content in soil. ¹³⁷Cs accumulation in potato tubers grown on sandy soddy podzolic watershed soils mainly corresponds to its total amount in soils; uptake of ⁹⁰Sr depends upon the percentage of its most mobile fraction.Pronounced relief is proved to cause different patterns in distribution and migration of radionuclides in soils and local food chains. The study showed it to be true for private farms situated in different landscape positions within the same settlement.The forest litter, topsoil and products, and flood plain pastures, especially localities in depressions are critical materials for the long-term radioecological monitoring of the contaminated landscapes of the study area and those of similar conditions. Population of the areas within the zone of contamination exceeding 15Ci/km² (555kBq/m²) should be recommended to exclude local forest products from their diets and to avoid cattle grazing on wet flood plain meadows without remediation.     

Gold–Silver mineralization in porphyry–epithermal systems of the Baimka trend,western Chukchi Peninsula,Russia

Mineralogical, fluid inclusion, and geochemical studies of precious metal mineralization within the Baimka trend in the western Chukchi Peninsula have been preformed. Porphyry copper–molybdenum–gold deposits and prospects of the Baimka trend are spatially related to monzonitic rocks of the Early Cretaceous Egdygkych Complex. Four types of precious metal-bearing assemblages have been identified: (1) chalcopyrite + bornite + quartz with high-fineness native gold enclosed in bornite, (2) low-Mn dolomite + quartz + sulfide (chalcopyrite, sphalerite, galena, tennantite-tetrahedrite) ± tourmaline with low-fineness native gold and hessite, (3) rhodochrosite + high-Mn dolomite + quartz + sulfide (chalcopyrite, sphalerite, galena, tennantite- tetrahedrite) with low-fineness native gold, electrum, acanthite, Ag and Au–Ag tellurides, and Ag sulfosalts, and (4) calcite + quartz + sulfide (chalcopyrite, sphalerite, galena) with low-fineness native gold, Ag sulfides and selenides, and Ag-bearing sulfosalts. Study of fluid inclusions from quartz, sphalerite, and fluorite have revealed that hydrothermal ores within the Baimka trend precipitated from fluids with strongly variable salinity at temperatures and pressures ranging from 594 to 104°C and from 1200 to 170 bar, respectively. An indicator of vertical AgPbZn/CuBiMo geochemical zoning is proposed. The value range of this indicator makes it possible to estimate the erosion level of the porphyry–epithermal system. The erosion level of the Baimka deposits and prospects deepens in the following order: Vesenny deposit → Pryamoi prospect → Nakhodka prospect → Peschanka deposit → III Vesenny prospect.     

Correction to: The enhanced element enrichment in the supercritical states of granite–pegmatite systems

Acta Geochimica - In the original publication, there are some missing data in Table 1 and incorrect data in Table 2.     

Be-daughter minerals in fluid and melt inclusions: implications for the enrichment of Be in granite–pegmatite systems

The study of re-homogenized melt inclusions in the same growth planes of quartz of pegmatites genetically linked to the Variscan granite of the Ehrenfriedersdorf complex, Erzgebirge, Germany, by ion microprobe analyses has determined high concentrations of Be, up to 10,000 ppm, in one type of melt inclusion, as well as moderate concentrations in the 100 ppm range in a second type of melt inclusion. Generally, the high Be concentrations are associated with the H₂O- and other volatile-rich type-B melt inclusions, and the lower Be concentration levels are connected to H₂O-poor type-A melt inclusions. Both inclusion types, representing conjugate melt pairs, are formed by a liquid–liquid immiscibility separation process. This extremely strong and very systematic scattering in Be provides insights into the origin of Be concentration and transport mechanisms in pegmatite-forming melts. In this contribution, we present more than 250 new analytical data and show with ion microprobe and fs-LA-ICPMS studies on quenched glasses, as well as with confocal Raman spectroscopy of daughter minerals in unheated melt inclusions, that the concentrations of Be may achieve such extreme levels during melt–melt immiscibility of H₂O-, B-, F-, P-, ± Li-enriched pegmatite-forming magmas. Starting from host granite with about 10 ppm Be, melt inclusions with 10,000 ppm Be correspond to enrichment by a factor of over 1,000. This strong enrichment of Be is the result of processes of fractional crystallization and further enrichment in melt patches of pegmatite bodies due to melt–melt immiscibility at fluid saturation. We also draw additional conclusions regarding the speciation of Be in pegmatite-forming melt systems from investigation of the Be-bearing daughter mineral phases in the most H₂O-rich melt inclusions. In the case of evolved volatile and H₂O-rich pegmatite systems, B, P, and carbonates are important for the enrichment and formation of stable Be complexes.     

On the problem of variability in the chemical composition of mud–volcanic waters: Evidence from the Yuzhno-Sakhalinsk mud volcano

The results of hydrogeochemical observations on the Yuzhno-Sakhalinsk mud volcano in 2010–2014 are considered. The chemical analysis of samples of mud–volcanic waters was carried out at various analytical centers, which is similar to the common situation where hydrochemical data for a volcano are obtained by different researchers. It is shown that the chemical composition of the mud–volcanic waters is relatively stable in time and space (for different gryphons of the volcano). This allows us to determine the characteristic range of hydrogeochemical indicators. For each year of observations, the coefficients of variation for the concentrations of Na, Mg, Ca, K, and HCO₃ mostly range from 10 to 30%. However, the concentrations analyzed in individual samples may differ significantly from each other. These natural variations are a likely source of errors in the interpretation of hydrochemical data. In addition, it is necessary to account for the specifics of mud–volcanic waters as an object of analytical chemical investigations.