断层脆塑性转化带的强度与变形机制及其流体和应变速率的影响

野外、实验和地震数据表明:浅部地壳的变形以脆性破裂为主,深部地壳的变形以晶体塑性流动为主.在这种认识的基础上,提出了地壳变形的2种机制模型,即发生脆性变形的上部地壳强度基于Byerlee摩擦定律以及发生塑性变形的下部地壳强度基于幂次蠕变定律.而位于其间的脆塑性转化带的深度与浅源地震深度的下限具有很好的一致性.然而,二元结构的流变模型局限性在于其力学模型过于简单,往往过高估计了脆塑性转化带的强度.问题的根源在于对脆塑性转化带的变形机制的研究已有很多,但没有定量的力学方程来描述脆塑性转化带强度;而且以往对断层脆塑性转化带的研究主要集中在温度引起的脆塑性转化方面,对因应变速率和流体对脆塑性转化的影响方面的研究也比较薄弱.对断层带内矿物变形机制研究表明,某些断层带脆塑性转化发生在相同深度(温度和压力)内,发生脆塑性转化的原因是应变速率的变化,而这种变化被认为与地震周期的同震、震后-间震期蠕变有关,这种变化得到了主震-余震深度分布变化的证实.对断层流体特征分析表明,断层带内可能存在高压流体,这种高压流体会随断裂带的破裂及愈合而周期性变化,在地震孕育及循环中起着关键性作用.高压流体的形成(裂隙愈合)有多种机理,其中,压溶是断层带裂隙愈合的主导机制之一.研究在水作用下的压溶,可以对传统的摩擦-流变二元地壳强度结构及其断层强度进行补充与修正.通过以上分析,认为有必要通过野外变形样品和高温高压实验,深入研究应变速率及流体压力对断层脆塑性转化的影响,同时,通过实验建立压溶蠕变的方程,近似地估计脆塑性转化带的强度.     

岩石的脆性-延性转变及塑性流动网络

实验变形研究表明.随着矿物组成.粒度、温度、围压、应变率、液体介质等因素的变化岩石由脆性,半脆性,向半延性.延性转变,其中包括力学行为.微观机制和宏观结构的变化,而决定岩石脆性-延性转变的基本因素在于所含的粘塑性成分及其粘滞性.半延性流动具有共轭网络状的结构特征;延性流动则包括网络状流动和均匀流动两种宏观结构;半延性-延性流动网络以其近似正交性和非牛顿流动特性分别与半脆性破裂网络和均匀延性流动相区别.基于上述研究,可将地壳、上地幔划分为脆性-半脆性的中上地壳,半延性-延性网络状流动的岩石圈下层(含下地壳和岩石圈地幔)和均匀延性流动的软流圈.地壳多震层内的大型地震带及网络是岩石圈下层塑性流动网络的一种响应.     

水对下地壳基性岩脆塑性转化影响的实验研究

研究表明 ,干的基性下地壳处于半脆性摩擦与半脆性流变的过渡状态 ,因此 ,文中采用多种基性岩样品进行了干的和含水基性岩的脆塑性转化实验 ,以深入理解大陆下地壳的力学性质。实验围压 4 5 0～ 5 0 0MPa ,应变速率 1× 1 0 - 4s- 1。实验结果表明 ,济南辉长岩 (样品C)、延庆辉绿岩 (样品D)和含水辉绿岩从 30 0℃到 90 0℃经历了脆性破裂、碎裂流动、半脆性流动和塑性流动几个变形域 ,而细粒攀枝花辉长岩 (样品A)和中细粒攀枝花辉长岩 (样品B)从 70 0℃到 90 0℃经历了半脆性流动和塑性流动 2个变形域。干的辉长岩样品比干的辉绿岩样品发生脆延性转化的温度高 1 0 0℃ ;所有干的基性岩样品的脆塑性转化都发生在 70 0℃ ,但半脆性流动域变形微观结构有差别 ,辉绿岩中斜长石和辉石发生了细粒化 ,并存在强烈的定向 ,形成初糜棱岩结构 ,辉长岩样品的细粒化和定向特征不明显。干的基性岩在以位错滑移为主的高温塑性流变域的强度和微观结构基本相同。水对基性岩脆塑性转化的影响体现在岩石的强度和脆延性与脆塑性的转化温度两方面。在实验温度范围内 ,含水辉绿岩样品的强度远小于干的辉绿岩和辉长     

不同温压条件下居庸关花岗岩脆塑性转化与失稳型式的实验研究

为研究花岗岩的脆塑性转化和失稳型式，在固体围压介质三轴实验系统上进行了3组高温高压实验，结果表明，温度小于300℃时花岗岩为脆性破裂，大于800℃时为塑性变形，在300-600℃，花岗岩为半脆性破裂和碎裂流动，在600-800℃，花岗岩为半脆性流动，花岗岩的渐进破坏发生在低压区域；突发失稳发生在室温高压（≥300MPa)和高温高压（550℃600MPa-650℃700MPa)两个区域；在突发失稳与渐进破坏区域之间存在大范围的准突发失稳区，在实验温压范围内，影响花岗岩脆塑性转化的首要因素是温度，其次是围压；而花岗岩的失稳型式同时取决于围压和温度。     

岩石的脆-延转换——最新实验和理论进展

从脆性破裂到塑性流动的破坏模式转换,对了解震源机制、地壳强度及野外尺度上的变形方式具有重要的意义.最近在高质量力学数据采集、微观变形结构的系统观察和压缩条件下岩石破坏的理论模拟研究方面的进展,使我们能进一步认识脆-延转换的物理和力学机制.通过测量强度的温压敏感性和对破坏模式的观察,可识别一些岩石脆-延转换的力学特性.然而,在高温高压下,对硅质岩石的半脆性流动或不同的孔隙流体、应变率及颗粒粒径对强度和流变的影响等方面比较全面的研究,还几乎没有.从脆性破裂到半脆性流动、从半脆性流动到全塑性流动,它们的转换强度和压力呈明显的线性关系.但这种关系的物理基础还没有很好地建立起来.微观结构的定性观察结果提供了有关各种变形机制的运行条件、应变分区的估计和裂纹成核机制的确定等方面的信息.最近对微观结构的定量研究,对半脆性域变形的微观机制起到了重要的约束作用.但在认识上仍存在很大的差距.     

水对Carrara大理岩强度和变形机制影响的实验研究

采用干燥和含水Carrara大理岩样品,在温度400~700℃、围压300MPa、应变速率10~(-4)/s和10~(-5)/s条件下开展了轴向压缩实验。利用傅里叶变换红外光谱仪,测试了实验样品中的水含量,通过偏光显微镜、扫描电镜与能谱分析了实验变形样品的微观结构。实验力学数据表明,在400℃时,样品表现为应变强化特征;在500~700℃条件下,样品转变为稳态流变。样品强度随温度增加而降低,随应变速率降低而降低;而水对大理岩强度的影响不显著。微观结构分析表明,在400℃时,大理岩以脆性破裂为主,含水样品局部出现压溶。在500℃时干样品和含水大理岩处于脆塑性转化变形域。干样品在600℃时变形以位错滑移为主,而干样品在700℃时和含水样品在600~700℃时,以位错攀移和动态重结晶为主要变形机制。较低的应变速率和较高的水含量促进了压溶作用和动态重结晶。     

高温高压条件下角闪岩脆-塑性转化实验研究

在高温高压条件下开展了天然角闪岩样品的变形实验研究,并且利用偏光显微镜和扫描电镜对实验样品进行微观结构观察,研究了在不同的温压和应变速率条件下角闪石的变形机制。实验结果表明,随着温度升高,样品的应力-应变曲线由强化逐渐转化为屈服,并且出现弱化,样品强度显著降低,随着围压增加,样品强度增大,随着应变速率降低,样品强度降低,压缩方向与样品面理斜交的实验样品强度显著降低。实验变形样品在500℃时,角闪石表现为晶内破裂和碎裂变形,其变形以脆性为主导;在600℃时,样品中发育由角闪石残斑和碎裂基质构成的碎裂组构,部分角闪石晶体出现了波状消光,角闪石以碎裂变形为主,局部具有塑性变形的特征;在700℃时,样品以晶体扭折变形为主,局部出现脱水和细粒微晶,并且含有微破裂,显示了样品以晶体扭折变形为主,含有微破裂,样品变形处于脆-塑性转换域;在800℃时,样品中基本没有发现明显的脆性变形,样品以动态重结晶作用为主,角闪石出现脱水。因此,在实验温压范围内,在500℃→600℃→700℃→800℃条件下,角闪石变形机制表现为脆性破裂→碎裂流动→晶体扭折→动态重结晶和脱水作用,显示了角闪石经历了脆性—脆-塑转化—塑性变形的变形机制。     

地球内部存在低应力长时间作用的黏性破坏吗?

根据变形耗散理论,本文提出了一个长期以来被忽略的问题:地球内部低应力长时间作用下超塑性蠕变会导致黏性流变破坏吗?一些实验表明在纳米相合金和陶瓷中观察到高应变率下的超塑性,因而推断如果存在高应变率和高温在非常细粒的地质材料中也将发现超塑性.事实上对于碳酸盐的实验表明了这一点.从已有大理岩的实验结果,总结出围压在0～500 MPa,温度在0～600℃范围的临界耗散能公式.表明这样的黏性流变破坏是存在的.值得注意的是,超塑性达到破坏阶段,它的微观结构将发生变化,因而物理性质也会变化.这就意味着地球内部一些地质现象可能与黏性流变破坏存在一定的关系.如果上地幔的确存在着黏性流变破坏,结合水和熔体作用,就可解释上地幔低速高导层种种争议问题.     

水对高应变率扭剪变形实验中大理岩强度的影响

利用 Kolsky 扭转棒作为实验装置,笔者在常温常压条件下对干燥的和潮湿的大理岩试样进行了一系列的动态简单剪切的实验变形研究,以期了解在高应变率(373-1-1736-1)时岩石中孔隙水对于岩石抗剪强度的影响.结果表明,孔隙水的存在不但没有降低,反而稍微提高了岩石的抗剪强度.结合前人在静态条件下的实验研究资料,笔者认为水对岩石变形的作用机制随应变率的变化而改变.在低应变率(例如:10-9-1)时,水对岩石变形的影响分别表现为压溶作用、应力侵蚀作用和降低有效应力的效应.压溶作用和应力侵蚀作用导致岩石强度的降低;而有效应力的降低则导致岩石强度的相对提高.      

龙门山断裂带脆塑性转化带内花岗岩的微量水分布特征及其在地震孕育中的作用

本文采集了映秀—北川断裂带南段出露的发生韧性变形的花岗岩样品,分析了脆塑性转化带内的岩石变形特征、变形温度和流动应力,并利用傅里叶红外吸收光谱仪(FITR)重点对石英和长石进行了测试.研究表明,龙门山断裂带深部发生过局部化塑性流动,以中、高温位错蠕变机制为主,重结晶细粒石英的粒度约15~100μm,估算得到的流动应力约15~80MPa.石英和长石内的微量水由晶体缺陷水、颗粒边界水和少量的包裹体水构成,两者的红外吸收光谱特点非常相似,主要吸收峰出现在波数3400cm~(-1)附近,次要吸收峰主要分布在波数3050cm~(-1)、3200cm~(-1)、3300cm~(-1)、3380cm~(-1)、3430cm~(-1)、3600cm~(-1)、3650cm~(-1)和3730cm~(-1)附近.花岗片麻岩内石英的水含量0.004~0.019wt%,长石的水含量0.013~0.043wt%;花岗初糜棱岩中石英的水含量0.004~0.018wt%,长石的水含量0.029~0.069wt%,愈合片麻岩中裂缝的早期石英脉中的细粒石英的水含量0.003~0.014wt%,发生半脆性-脆性变形的晚期石英脉的水含量0.016~0.032wt%.通过与前人的研究对比,认为龙门山地区韧性剪切带内微量水含量随变形程度增加而升高,弱化了脆塑性转化带内断层中心岩石流变强度,提高断层的应变速率,加强了脆塑性转化带向脆性域底部的闭锁断层的应变传递作用.对于难以滑动的高角度逆断层,这有利于强震在中地壳深度附近的孕育和发生.     

A Monte Carlo study of rainfall forecasting with a stochastic model

A procedure for short-term rainfall forecasting in real-time is developed and a study of the role of sampling on forecast ability is conducted. Ground level rainfall fields are forecasted using a stochastic space-time rainfall model in state-space form. Updating of the rainfall field in real-time is accomplished using a distributed parameter Kalman filter to optimally combine measurement information and forecast model estimates. The influence of sampling density on forecast accuracy is evaluated using a series of a simulated rainfall events generated with the same stochastic rainfall model. Sampling was conducted at five different network spatial densities. The results quantify the influence of sampling network density on real-time rainfall field forecasting. Statistical analyses of the rainfall field residuals illustrate improvement in one hour lead time forecasts at higher measurement densities.     

Earthquake Engineering and Engineering Vibration Aims And Scope

正This journal is established by the Institute of Engineering Mechanics(IEM),China Earthquake Administration,to promote scientific exchange between Chinese and foreign scientists and engineers so as to improve the theory and practice of earthquake hazards mitigation,preparedness,and recovery.To accomplish this purpose,the journal aims to attract a balanced number of papers between Chinese and     

Solute concentrations in the lower niger river and the source rock contribution

Water quality analyses for the Niger River for the 1980/81 hydrological year are presented. The samples were collected from the main river at Lokoja, and from two main tributaries, the Kaduna and the Benue Rivers. Different water types were distinguished by the concentrations of major ions. The type Ca > Na > Mg > K - HCO₃ > SO₄ > Cl was represented at all stations during at least part of the year. Chloride was found to dominate the sulphate ion in the Kaduna and Niger, while the Benue maintained a higher concentration of sulphate relative to chloride all year round. Distinct patterns of seasonal variation in the ion concentrations were observed, particularly for the samples collected at Lokoja. Low ion concentrations were prominent during periods of high discharge, while low flow periods coincided with high dissolved ion concentrations. The contribution of rainwater to the total dissolved solids in the river waters was assessed indirectly using rainwater chemistry data from the Gulf of Guinea. The estimated rainwater contribution to the Lower Niger amounts to 5.15 mg 1^?1. Geochemical weathering calculations involving reactions of the four major minerals of granitic rocks - anorthite, biotite, albite, and K-feldspar - with carbon dioxide and water, can account for the average water composition of the Lower Niger. The proportion of the ionic components was also related to the occurrence of the respective element in the minerals.     

Scenario predictions for potential near-field and far-field earthquakes affecting Hong Kong

Historical earthquakes noted in the written records of the South China region, including Hong Kong, are not well delineated along identified prominent fault sources. Despite the lack of any definitive, localised trend in the spatial distribution of seismic activity in the region, there does appear to be some major disparity in the seismic activity rates (especially for large magnitude earthquakes) between the near-field and the far-field regions of Hong Kong. Despite this observation, previous studies of the regional seismic activity and seismic ground motion hazard (the latter using a probabilistic seismic hazard assessment, PSHA) have considered very broad source zone regions, in which uniform levels of seismic activity have been assumed. The present paper further scrutinises this broad source zone (BSZ) approach by adopting a novel expanding circular disc (ECD) method to determine the rates of earthquake recurrence. Such a method is intended to counter-check previously developed models by determining earthquake scenario events in terms of magnitude–distance (M–R) pairs or combinations, having defined values of average return period. Unlike the BSZ approach, the ECD method specifically accounts for the supposed variations in the seismic activity rates between events in the near-field and the far-field of Hong Kong.The form of the developed method is particularly suited to the determination of design-level earthquake ground motions for bedrock sites, since it assumes a directionally-independent attenuation model as described in the companion paper. It is found that, whilst the BSZ approach may indicate the overall average levels of hazard that are representative of the South China region as a whole, it does not capture the large disparity in seismic activity rates between near-field and far-field events. This important feature is expected to have a significant impact upon engineering assessments of the seismic safety of structures in Hong Kong and elsewhere in the South China region. For example, it is found that for events with M≥6, the seismic activity rate (normalised by time and area) in the very far-field is around 3.5 times larger than in the near-field and medium-field of Hong Kong. The resulting design M-R combinations, covering a range of return periods from 70 to 2500 years, are limited, for very long return periods and for distant events, by the maximum credible earthquake (MCE) magnitude. Intensive research to determine this seismic hazard parameter is recommended, in order to refine further the results of the ECD analysis, which presently conservatively assumes the MCE to range between M=6 in the near-field of Hong Kong to M=8 in the very far-field, at distances greater than 280 km from Hong Kong.     

Depositional ages and characteristics of Middle–Upper Jurassic and Lower Cretaceous lacustrine deposits in southeastern Mongolia

Lower Cretaceous lacustrine oil shales are widely distributed in southeastern Mongolia. Due to the high organic carbon content of oil shale, many geochemical studies and petroleum exploration have been conducted. Although most of the oil shales are considered to be Early Cretaceous in age, a recent study reveals that some were deposited in the Middle Jurassic. The present study aims at establishing depositional ages and characteristics of the Jurassic and Cretaceous lacustrine deposits in Mongolia. The Lower Cretaceous Shinekhudag Formation is about 250 m thick and composed of alternating beds of shale and dolomite. The Middle Jurassic Eedemt Formation is about 150 m thick and composed of alternating beds of shale, dolomitic marl, and siltstone. The alternations of shale and dolomite in both formations were formed by lake level changes, reflecting precipitation changes. Shales were deposited in the center of a deep lake during highstand, while dolomites were formed by primary precipitation during lowstand. Based on the radiometric age dating, the Shinekhudag Formation was deposited between 123.8 ±2.0 Ma and 118.5 ±0.9 Ma of the early Aptian. The Eedemt Formation was deposited at around 165–158 Ma of Callovian–Oxfordian. The calculated sedimentation rate of the Shinekhudag Formation is between 4.7 ±2.6 cm/ky and 10.0 ±7.6 cm/ky. Shales in the Shinekhudag Formation show micrometer‐scale lamination, consisting of algal organic matter and detrital clay mineral couplets. Given the average thickness of micro‐laminae and calculated sedimentation rate, the micro‐lamination is most likely of varve origin. Both Middle–Upper Jurassic and Lower Cretaceous lacustrine oil shales were deposited in intracontinental basins in the paleo‐Asian continent. Tectonic processes and basin evolution basically controlled the deposition of these oil shales. In addition, enhanced precipitation under humid climate during the early Aptian and the Callovian–Oxfordian was another key factor inducing the widespread oil shale deposition in Mongolia.     

THEORETICAL APPROACH TO THE SOLUTION OF THE INFILTRATION PROBLEM

ABSTRACT

The one-dimensional transient downward entry of water in unsaturated soils is investigated theoretically. The mathematical equation describing the infiltration process is derived by combining Darcy's dynamic equation of motion with the continuity and thermodynamic state equations adjusted for the unsaturated flow conditions. The resulting equation together with the corresponding initial and boundary conditions constitues a mathematical initial boundary value problem requiring the solution of a nonlinear partial differential equation of the parabolic type. The volumetric water content is taken as the dependent variable and the time and the position along the vertical direction are taken as the independent variables. The governing equation is of such nature that a solution exists for t > 0 and is uniquely determined if two relationships are defined, together with the specified state of the system, at the initial time t = 0 and at the two boundaries. The two required relations are those of pressure versus permeability and pressure versus volumetric water content.

Since the partial differential equation has strong non-linear terms, a discrete solution is obtained by approximating the derivatives with finite-differences at discrete mesh points in the solution domain and integrated for the corresponding initial and boundary conditions. The use of an implicit difference scheme is employed in order to generate a system of simultaneous non-linear equations that has to be solved for each time increment. For n mesh points the two boundary conditions provide two equations and the repetition of the recurrence formula provides n—2 equations, the total being n equations for each time increment. The solution of the system is obtained by matrix inversion and particularly with a back-substitution technique. The FORTRAN statements used for obtaining the solution with an electronic digital computer (IBM 704) are presented together with the input data.

Analysis of the errors involved in the numerical solution is made and the stability and convergence of the solution of the approximate difference equation to that of the differential equation is investigated. The method applied is that of making a Fourier series expansion of a whole line of errors and then following the progress of the general term of the series expansion and also the behavior of each constituent harmonic. The errors (forming a continuous function of points in an abstract Banach space) are represented by vectors with the Fourier coefficients constituting a second Banach space. The amplification factor of the difference equation is shown to be always less than unity which guarantees the stability of the employed implicit recurrence scheme.

Experiments conducted on a vertical column packed uniformly with very fine sand, show a satisfactory agreement between the theoretically and experimentally obtained values. Many experimental results are shown in an attempt to explain the infiltration phenomenon with emphasis on the shape and movement of the wet front, and the effects of the degree of compaction, initial water content and deaired water on the infiltration rate.     

Late Permian post‐ophiolitic trondhjemites from Central Iran: a mark of subduction role in growth of Paleozoic continental crust

Late Permian trondhjemites in the Anarak area occur as stocks and dykes, which cross cut the Anarak ophiolite and its overlying metasedimentary rocks, and are exposed along the northern Anarak east–west main faults. These leucocratic intrusive bodies have enclaves of all ophiolitic units and metamorphic rocks. They are composed of amphibole, plagioclase (oligoclase), quartz, zircon and muscovite. Secondary minerals are chlorite (pycnochlorite), epidote, albite, magnetite and calcite. Whole‐rock major‐ and trace‐element analyses reveal that they are characterized by high SiO ₂ (67.8–71.0 wt%), Al ₂ O ₃ (14.9–17.1 wt%) and Na ₂ O (5.3–8.6 wt%), low K ₂ O (0.1–1.5 wt%; average: 0.8 wt%), low Rb/Sr ratio (0.01–0.40; average: 0.09), low Y (3–6 ppm), negative Ti, Nb and Ta anomalies, slightly negative or positive Eu anomaly, LREE enrichment and fractionated HREE. These rocks present 2 to 40 times enrichment in inclined chondrite‐normalized REE patterns. Geochemical characteristics of the Anarak trondhjemites all reflect melting of a mafic protolith at more than 10 kbar. The field evidence and whole‐rock chemistry reveal that these rocks have been crystallized from magmas derived from melting of subducted Anarak oceanic crust. This study reveals that melting of garnet amphibolite was an important element of continent formation in the study area.