Interaction Between Wind and Snow Surface

The horizontal and vertical wind velocity fluctuations were measured using two sonic anemometers at a height of 135 cm above a snow surface under a transverse snow wave-forming condition. A snow-wave was formed when the wind at a height of 1 m blew at a speed of more than 7 m s⁻¹ after an approximate accumulation of from 10 to 20 cm of new snow on a snowfield. For example, when a snow-wave had a wavelength of 10 m and a wave height of 15 to 20 cm, the measured horizontal and vertical velocity components showed that they had a frequency peak of 0.7 Hz in coherence and co-spectrum corresponding to this wavelength. The results suggest that wind turbulence and snow-wave formation interact with each other.     

垂直指向测雨雷达的误差模拟及相互校准

基于马歇尔—帕米尔(M-P)分布的雨滴谱和下落末速—降雨算法, 模拟了垂直气流和雷达垂直倾角对垂直指向测雨雷达雨强测量的影响。同时在外场, 与雨量计观测相结合, 比较了五部垂直指向测雨雷达之间的差异, 对其进行了校准。结果表明: 模拟的上升气流对雨强测量的影响大于下沉气流, 垂直气流速率越大雨强测量误差愈显著; 当雷达垂直倾角<1.5°, 或在低风速下 (水平风速<2 m/s) 且倾角<9°, 对雨强测量的影响均小于10%; 强对流性降雨过程中, 垂直气流对雨强测量的影响大于垂直倾角。另外, 通过挑选层状云降雨过程, 对比雷达与共置雨量计测量的降雨量、 对比雷达间测量的降雨量均可获取较合理的归一化斜率; 但对比雷达间测量的降雨量法更优, 利用该斜率可降低雷达间的仪器误差; 在限定雷达间反射率因子差值的条件下, 比较雷达间全部降雨过程的反射率因子也可反映仪器间的系统误差趋势。     

Effects of Snowfall on Drifting Snow and Wind Structure Near a Surface

Wind-tunnel and numerical experiments were performed to investigate the effects of snowfall on the wind profile and the development of drifting snow. Wind profiles and mass-flux profiles of drifting snow were measured with and without artificial snowfall over a snow surface within the tunnel. Wind and shear-stress profiles and the impact speeds of the snowflakes during snowfall were also investigated numerically. During snowfall, snowflakes transfer part of their horizontal momentum to the air, which increases the stress close to the snow surface; however, the resultant modifications of the wind profiles are small. Because snowflakes have large momentum, the decomposed snow crystals that result from their collision with a surface can form a saltation layer, even over a hard snow surface where entrainment of the grains from the surface does not occur. Additionally, during snowfall, the threshold friction velocity can be lower than the impact threshold because snowflake fragmentation facilitates snow drifting. The broken crystals contribute to the increase in the number of drifting snow grains, even below the impact threshold.     

新疆北部雪灾气候因子的风险分析试验——以阿勒泰为例

用新疆北部阿勒泰站1954—2010年资料,分析致灾大雪5个气候因子的概率风险。在模糊信息扩散理论初步分析的基础上,进行综合分析试验。试验表明,在未知理论分布的情况下,模糊信息扩散法对雪灾气候因子的概率风险分析可靠简便,缺点粗糙。进一步的理论分布分析,发现冬季大雪(≥6mm)日数、最大雪深、日最大降雪量、冬季降雪量、大于等于10cm雪深日数的理论分布模型,具有Gamma分布特征,通过α=0.001的相关系数显著性检验。分析不同界限雪深日数的气候因素族的概率密度分布,发现其具有双峰型特征,不属于常规典型分布,其理论分布有待深入研究。提出的Gamma分布,分析计算的步骤、方法有实际应用价值。试验确定的具有Gamma分布特征的几个雪灾气候因子,对于从理论上认识雪灾气候风险具有重要意义。     

Snow ripples and their contribution to the mass transport in drifting snow

Morphological characteristics of snow ripples formed by drifting snow were investigated as functions of wind velocity in a cold wind tunnel at -15 °C. Wave-length, wave height and migration rate of snow ripples increased from 5 to 20 cm, 3 to 5 mm and 1 to 8 cm/min, respectively, with increasing wind velocity from 5 to 7 m/s. Measured size distributions of snow particles in snow ripples showed sorting of large particles in ridges, suggesting that the snow ripple migration is caused by creeping of large particles. The snow drift rate caused by creep, that is, by the ripple migration, was estimated to amount, at least, to 6% of the total snow drift rate.     

毫米波测云雷达在降雪观测中的应用初步分析

本文利用毫米波云雷达联合称重式雨量计、气球探空和S波段天气雷达在北京对2015年11月三次降雪进行了观测,以2015年11月22~23日降雪过程为例,主要从降雪系统的宏观结构特征、微物理变化以及毫米波雷达在降雪探测中电磁波衰减情况、雪粒子含水量和地面降雪量估测几方面进行初步分析。结果表明:（1）毫米波云雷达具有高时空分辨率,能对降雪系统进行精细化探测,在降雪系统发展最旺盛的阶段能够通过反射率（Z）、退极化比（LDR）和径向速度（V）初步判断出云中是否含有过冷液滴;（2）降雪回波强度最大值能反映整层云系中含水量最大的区域,当最大值Z大于20 dBZ时,最大值的大小、最大值持续时间、最大值出现的高度与地面降水量成正相关,速度最大值表示云中粒子上升最大速度（速度为正时）或者粒子下落的最小速度（速度为负时）,主要分布在－0.5~2 m s?1,速度最小值表示粒子下落的最大速度,主要在－3~－1 m s?1;（3）随着高度增加反射率的垂直廓线会出现多个峰值,这是由于不同高度层风速分布不均造成的,降雪回波这种特点比降雨回波更明显;（4）对比Ka与S波段雷达反射率可知,两雷达反射率平均差值小于2.5 dBZ,Ka波段反射率略大S波段雷达反射率;（5）降雪量反演与地面降雪量仪数据对比,逐小时降雪量反演精度为20.38%,累计降雪量反演误差为6.58%,24小时累计降雪量绝对误差为1.9 mm,说明云雷达估算累计降雪量具有较高的可行性,能够很准确的反映地面实际降雪情况,当降雪系统发展旺盛时,雪粒子含水量分布在0.05~0.15 g m?3,在降雪初期或者降雪系统消散期,雪粒子含水量一般小于0.04 g m?3,能够很好地反映出整层降雪回波的雪粒子含水量。这些云雷达在降雪观测中的应用和初步分析结果可以更好的地了解降雪系统宏微观结构,为云模式的发展和人工影响天气中增雪潜力评估提供一些参考。     

风切变对中尺度对流系统强度和组织结构影响的数值试验

采用我国实际观测的探空作为中尺度模式Weather Research and Forecasting(WRF)的理想试验的背景场,分别改变整层、低层和中层的垂直风切变,研究其对中尺度对流系统强度和组织结构的影响。结果表明,改变整层垂直风切变对对流系统的强度和组织结构影响最显著,增加整层垂直风切变,对流强度增强且易组织成线状,减小整层垂直风切变,对流强度弱且呈分散状态。从垂直速度、水平风场、散度场和冷池的三维结构特征分析了其影响的机制:(1)风切变增加,上升气流与下沉气流的相互干扰减弱,有利于垂直速度的维持和增强;(2)垂直风切变增加造成水平涡度增加,扭转项的作用分别使上升和下沉运动得到加强;(3)垂直风切变增加,冷池强度和高度增加且集中在系统后部,使系统线状组织性增强。研究还发现,增加垂直风切变造成近地面大风和降水增强,且强降水出现在大风之后,这主要是因为在对流发展阶段上升运动与下沉运动互不干扰情况下,强下沉运动造成的近地面大风,而成熟阶段上升运动不断增强或维持造成雨水比湿不断增加形成强降水。     

2010年12月9日兴安盟大雪天气过程分析

文章针对2010年12月9—10日兴安盟出现的大雪天气过程,分析了这次大雪过程在各站历史上的排位和对白灾的影响;从高空环流形势的影响系统及风场的分布特征,地面低压移动方向和位置进行分析;分析了物理量场中的相对湿度、涡度、散度、垂直速度、风场等对本次大雪的作用。最后对欧洲预报,T639、德国、日本降水格点,日本传真图等数值预报场在本次大雪预报中的效果进行检验分析。     

2008年1月末九江雨凇转大雪天气过程成因分析

对2008年1月25—29日九江市一次雨凇转大到暴雪天气过程的大气垂直结构进行了分析。结果表明,在雨凇和降雪区域中层有暖层,低层有冷层,且存在对称不稳定层结。垂直风切变明显,有利于对称不稳定能量积累和上升气流的形成。高、低空急流辐散、辐合相互垂直,引发的较强上升运动是雨雪天气得以维持的重要条件。东西风向切变使冷、暖气流在雨雪区域上空交汇,形成水平气旋性辐合,产生垂直运动,且与垂直风切变相互作用,促动上、下层动量传递,使高、低空急流维持。雨凇转大到暴雪时,暖层气温降低,垂直风切变向上增强,对称不稳定能量增大,风向切变辐合加大,上升气流和水汽输送加大。     

Impact Of Snow Drift On The Antarctic Ice Sheet Surface Mass Balance: Possible Sensitivity To Snow-Surface Properties

A mesoscale atmospheric numerical model is coupled with a physically based snow-pack model and with a snow-drift model. The snow model is verified for the French Alps by comparing its simulations to observations performed at the Col de Porte in the Chartreuse Massif. The snow erosion threshold depends on snow-pack properties such as density, dendricity, sphericity and particle size. The atmospheric turbulence scheme is modified in order to take into account stabilization effects due to airborne blown snow particles. In particular, vertically integrated stability functions for the stable boundary layer are completed by including the threshold friction velocity for snow erosion. The snow-drift model is calibrated by simulating the conditions observed during the Byrd snow project, held in West Antarctica in 1962. Finally, sensitivity experiments to the snow-surface properties show the importance of their accurate representation when modelling the contribution of deflation to the Antarctic surface mass balance.     

基于随机森林的湖北雪密度预测模型及其在雪压分析中的应用

雪密度、雪压等积雪参数资料的缺乏是南方地区雪灾精细化防御研究的难点之一,通过历史地面积雪气象观测资料来反演测站及周边的雪密度,是对现有积雪监测资料的有益补充。本文利用湖北省76站的逐日气象观测资料,分析并选取了积雪期的积雪日数、积雪深度、气温、日照等8个影响雪密度的自变量因子,构建了雪密度的随机森林回归(RF)模型,并通过RF模型反演数据,分析了湖北省雪密度和雪压分布情况。结果表明：①雪密度RF模型预测的均方根误差为0.04 g/cm3左右,可以用于湖北省雪密度资料反演。②湖北省平均雪密度在0.14～0.20 g/cm3之间,从中部以0.17 g/cm3为〖JP2〗界分为东西两个区,东部区雪密度较大。③湖北省近60年来最大雪压值在1.3～6.7 g/cm2之间,不同重现期最大雪压分布存在鄂西北和鄂东两个高值区,且鄂东区的中北部基本雪压值更大。〖JP〗     

基于多普勒天气雷达产品的降雪及冻雨综合分析

利用常规观测资料、探空资料、多普勒雷达资料从天气背景、温度层结及雷达回波特征等方面对宁波2004-2008年的7次降雪过程进行综合分析。结果表明:中层西南气流、低层逆温、低层转偏北风及地面气温低于4 ℃是宁波降雪的必要条件, 西南气流的强弱与范围很大程度上决定降雪强度; 冻雨要求中低空存在高于0 ℃的融化层, 下垫面温度低于0 ℃, 降雪则要求冻结层厚度远大于融化层或者没有融化层; 降雪回波特征中, 回波强度一般低于30dBz, 与降雪量对应关系不明显, 水平和垂直反射率因子梯度小, 结构均匀, 一般谱宽小于4 m/ s, 回波顶高低于6000 m; 零度层亮带所在高度的降低、消失与雨雪转换时间基本吻合, 可以利用零度层亮带高度的变化来判断降水性质的转变; 600 hPa以下零速度线随高度的变化, 对雪止临近预报有一定的指示意义。     

An Intercomparison Among Four Models Of Blowing Snow

Four one-dimensional, time-dependent blowing snow models areintercompared. These include three spectral models, PIEKTUK-T,WINDBLAST, SNOWSTORM, and the bulk version of PIEKTUK-T,PIEKTUK-B. Although the four models are based on common physicalconcepts, they have been developed by different research groups. Thestructure of the models, numerical methods, meteorological field treatmentand the parameterization schemes may be different. Under an agreed standardcondition, the four models generally give similar results for the thermodynamic effects of blowing snow sublimation on the atmospheric boundary layer, including an increase of relative humidity and a decrease of the ambient temperature due to blowing snow sublimation. Relative humidity predicted by SNOWSTORM is lower than the predictions of the other models, which leads to a larger sublimation rate in SNOWSTORM. All four models demonstrate that sublimation rates in a column of blowing snow have a single maximum in time, illustrating self-limitation of the sublimation process of blowing snow. However, estimation of the eddy diffusioncoefficient for momentum (K_m), and thereby the diffusion coefficients for moisture (K_w) and for heat (K_h), has a significant influence on the process. Sensitivitytests with PIEKTUK-T show that the sublimation rate can be approximately constant with time after an initial phase, if K_m is a linear function with height. In order to match the model results with blowing snow observations, some parameters in the standard run, such as settling velocity of blowing snow particles in these models, may need to be changed to more practical values.     

Interaction between wind and snow surface

The horizontal and vertical wind velocity fluctuations were measured using two sonic anemometers at a height of 135 cm above a snow surface under a transverse snow wave-forming condition. A snow-wave was formed when the wind at a height of 1 m blew at a speed of more than 7 m s^–1 after an approximate accumulation of from 10 to 20 cm of new snow on a snowfield. For example, when a snow-wave had a wavelength of 10 m and a wave height of 15 to 20 cm, the measured horizontal and vertical velocity components showed that they had a frequency peak of 0.7 Hz in coherence and co-spectrum corresponding to this wavelength. The results suggest that wind turbulence and snow-wave formation interact with each other.     

中国西天山季节性积雪热力特征分析

利用中国天山积雪雪崩站干、湿雪雪层内每隔5min一次的10层雪温数据,探讨了一次降雪过程后干、湿雪的雪层温度特征,对比分析了干、湿雪的雪面能量平衡方程中各分量的差异。结果表明:(1)整个冬半年积雪各层温度基本<0℃,雪温日变化振幅由雪面向下逐渐减小,积雪深层温度的波峰(谷)值稍滞后于积雪浅层温度极值1～2天。(2)湿雪冷中心的出现时间早于干雪,暖中心的出现时间晚于干雪,太阳辐射对湿雪的穿透深度大于干雪。(3)雪层温度振幅变化与能量吸收随雪深都呈指数衰减分布。积雪密度越大,吸收系数越小,穿透深度越大。(4)干雪雪面的感热通量和潜热通量几乎都为负值,积雪积累。湿雪雪面的潜热通量与感热通量方向相反,互相抵消,所以净辐射是导致湿雪消融的主要因素。     

The impact of different vertical diffusion schemes in a three-dimensional oil spill model in the Bohai Sea

Vertical transport is critical to the movement of oil spills in seawater. Breaking waves play an important role by developing a well-defined mixing layer in the upper part of the water column. A three-dimensional （3-D） Lagrangian random walk oil spill model was used here to study the influence of sea surface waves on the vertical turbulence movement of oil particles. Three vertical diffusion schemes were utilized in the model to compare their impact on oil dispersion and transportation. The first scheme calculated the vertical eddy viscosity semi-empirically. In the second scheme, the vertical diffusion coefficient was obtained directly from an Eulerian hydrodynamic model （Princeton Ocean Model, POM2k） while considering wave- caused turbulence. The third scheme was formulated by solving the Langevin equation. The trajectories, percentages of oil particles intruding into water, and the vertical distribution structures of oil particles were analyzed for a series of numerical experiments with different wind magnitudes. The results showed that the different vertical diffusion schemes could generate different horizontal trajectories and spatial distributions of oil spills on the sea surface. The vertical diffusion schemes caused different water-intruding and resurfacing oil particle behaviors, leading to different horizontal transport of oil particles at the surface and subsurface of the ocean. The vertical diffusion schemes were also applied to a realistic oil spill simulation, and these results were compared to satellite observations. All three schemes yielded acceptable results, and those of the third scheme most closely simulated the observed data.     

A New Triple-Moment Blowing Snow Model

This paper presents a new triple-moment blowing snow model PIEKTUK-T by including predictive equations for three moments of the gamma size distribution. Specifically, predictive equations for the total number concentration, total mass mixing ratio, and total radar reflectivity for blowing snow are included. Tests in the context of idealized experiments and observed case studies demonstrate that the triple-moment model performs better than the double-moment model PIEKTUK-D in predicting the evolution of the number concentration, mixing ratio, shape parameter, and visibility in blowing snow, provided that the fall velocities for the total number concentration, mass mixing ratio, and radar reflectivity are weighted by the same order of the respective moments in both models. The power law relationship between the radar reflectivity factor and particle extinction coefficient found in PIEKTUK-T is consistent with one observed in snow storms. Coupling of the triple-moment blowing snow model to an atmospheric model would allow realistic studies of the effect of blowing snow on weather and climate.     

西天山气象因子对融雪期积雪深度影响通径分析

积雪深度的变化受到多种气象因子共同影响。基于天山积雪雪崩站观测的水文气象资料,通过数理统计、标准化处理、通径分析等方法探索气象因子之间的相互作用对积雪深度变化的影响。研究结果表明:融雪期大气温度、净辐射、相对湿度等6个气象因子对积雪深度变化的影响程度不同,净辐射与积雪深度相关程度最高。气象因子之间有着不同程度的相互联系,相对湿度与降水之间的相关系数高达0.854,相对湿度与降水之间有着密切的联系。直接通径系数反映独立气象因子对积雪深度的直接影响程度,间接通径系数反映独立气象因子在其他气象因子的影响下对积雪深度的间接影响程度。根据积雪深度决定系数绝对值的大小可以得到,对积雪深度变化贡献力由大到小的气象因子依次为:净辐射、地表温度、大气温度、降水、相对湿度、风速;积雪深度的剩余系数为0.353,说明除了本研究的6个气象因子以外还存在着其他影响积雪深度变化的因素。     

高风速相干结构对通量输送影响的实验研究

切变湍流的相干结构是湍流研究中的重大发现,它表明湍流运动并非完全随机,其中具有可检测的有序结构.本文通过处理南京浦口地区大气边界层观测数据,来分析不稳定层结中高风速相干结构特征.本次观测项目包括对场地中央的气象铁塔上2 m和40 m高度上超声风速仪的脉动速度、温度测量以及风廓线雷达对边界层风速廓线的测量.对超声水平风速时间序列数据进行小波变换 (时间尺度400 s),通过阈值来识别这种高风速相干结构.与多普勒风廓线雷达测量结果对比后发现,这种方法确定的相干结构符合常规的认识,具有较长的时间尺度和较大的垂直尺度 (接近边界层厚度).分析三天相干结构特性得到无量纲空间间隔约为6,即每隔6个边界层厚度的水平位置出现一个高速相干结构.通过与垂直风速小波系数的比较,发现高风速相干结构与向下垂直风速之间有较好相关,这与湍流中 “阵风” 现象的研究结论相似.使用四象限分析方法分类得到两种动量通量输送为负的运动:较小水平风速的上扬 (ejection) 运动 (简称为上扬运动) 和较大水平风速的下扫 (sweep) 运动 (简称为下扫运动),这两种运动在整个湍流活动中处于主导地位.高风速相干结构通过促进下扫运动和抑制上扬运动来影响动量通量的输送.     

中国冬季积雪变异及其与北极涛动的联系

本文利用1979～2010年NCEP/NCAR再分析资料、中国台站观测雪深、气温和降雪资料, 分析了中国冬季积雪时空分布特征, 结果表明:雪深经验正交分解第一模态有显著的南、北反位相特征, 当新疆北部、东北地区积雪偏多(少)时, 对应黄河以南和青藏高原地区积雪偏少(多)。近30年来中国冬季积雪变异与北极涛动(AO)有非常紧密的联系, 雪深的南、北反位相分布型与北极涛动有明显的反相关关系。AO负位相时, 500 hPa等压面上40°N以北存在着中心在贝加尔湖附近的气旋环流, 而在其南存在着中心在中国西南的反气旋性环流, 中国北方和南方地区分别受气旋和反气旋的控制。在我国北方地区, 与AO相联系的气旋环流异常导致降雪增多、地表温度偏低, 使得积雪增加;而在南方地区, 与AO相联系的反气旋性环流异常导致的降雪减少和气温偏高, 导致了积雪减少。本文的研究说明了北极涛动通过影响中国降雪和气温, 进而对中国冬季积雪产生可能的影响。