Hydrothermal hydrocarbon gases: 2, Application in the East African Rift System

Hydrocarbon gases are ubiquitous in the hydrothermal systems of the East African Rift System (EARS), though often found at very low concentrations in the ‘volcanic’ eastern branch as compared to the ‘sedimentary’ western branch. Study of the chemical and isotopic compositions of these hydrocarbons from sites in Kenya, Ethiopia, Djibouti and Uganda reveals considerable homogeneity over hundreds of km of the various rift units. Consideration of C and He isotopic evidence points to a predominantly crustal thermogenic origin for the hydrocarbons, there being no evidence of mantle inputs in either the MORB or ‘hotspot’ sectors of the EARS. Temperature information from geothermal wells has been utilised to investigate the relationship between reservoir temperatures and ratios of CH₄ to C₂H₆. The general C₁/C₂ geothermometric relationship proposed in Part 1 of this study holds reasonably well, and is shown to give results equal to or better than the ‘inorganic’ gas geothermometers presently in use, both in the wellfields and undeveloped high-enthalpy geothermal areas. Results from low-enthalpy hot spring systems are less well correlated with apparent deep temperatures, but consistent with data from similar systems elsewhere in the world.     

Hydrothermal petroleum from lacustrine sedimentary organic matter in the East African Rift.

Cape Kalamba oil seeps occur at the south end of the Ubwari Peninsula, at the intersection of faults controlling the morphology of the northern basin of the Tanganyika Rift, East Africa. Oil samples collected at the surface of the lake 3-4 km offshore from Cape Kalamba have been studied. The aliphatic hydrocarbon and biomarker compositions, with the absence of the typical suite of polynuclear aromatic hydrocarbons, indicate an origin from hydrothermal alteration of immature microbial biomass in the sediments. These data show a similarity between a tar sample from the beach and the petroleum from the oil seeps, and confirm that the source of these oils is from organic matter consisting mainly of bacterial and degraded algal biomass, altered by hydrothermal activity. The compositions also demonstrate a < 200 degrees C temperature for formation/generation of this hydrothermal petroleum, similar to the fluid temperature identified for the Pemba hydrothermal site located 150 km north of Cape Kalamba. The 14C age of 25.6 ka B.P. obtained for the tar ball suggests that Pleistocene lake sediments could be the source rock. Hydrothermal generation may have occurred slightly before 25 ka B.P., during a dry climatic environment, when the lake level was lower than today. These results also suggest that the Cape Kalamba hydrothermal activity did not occur in connection with an increased flux of meteoric water, higher water tables and lake levels as demonstrated in the Kenya Rift and for the Pemba site. Hydrothermal petroleum formation is a facile process also in continental rift systems and should be considered in exploration for energy resources in such locales.     

The origin of high bicarbonate and fluoride concentrations in waters of the Main Ethiopian Rift Valley, East African Rift system

Thermal waters in the Main Ethiopian Rift Valley are characterized by high Na, bicarbonate and fluoride concentrations, and near-neutral to alkaline pH. Sodium, bicarbonate and fluoride are positively correlated in the waters. The principal reason for the bicarbonate in the area is the high rate of carbon dioxide outgassing. This, combined with acid volcanics, geothermal heating, low Ca and low salinity, is also one of the causes of high fluoride in this part of the active volcanic zone of the East African Rift. Evaporative concentration is responsible for the high salinity, alkalinity and fluoride in the closed-basin lakes of the region. The waters are undersaturated with respect to fluoride and anhydrite. Calcium tends to be fixed in Ca bearing minerals such as calcite and epidote, which are abundant in the system. Hence, it appears that fluoride is a mobile component in acid volcanic geothermal systems.     

Crustal structure of the East African Rift zone

A review of seismological data on the crustal structure of the East African Rift zone is presented. The only refraction line is that along the Gregory Rift, which indicates a 7.5 km/sec refractor which is presumed to be the Moho. The bulk of data is provided by surface-wave dispersion studies. Some preliminary measurements of crustal and sub-Moho velocities using the University of Durham array at Kaptagat in Kenya are included.

There is now a growing body of evidence that the crust is generally of shield type over the whole rift zone. The exception is along the axis of the Gregory Rift, where a low-velocity Moho and some crustal modification is apparent. This is presumably the result of magma intrusions and suggests some crustal separation along this section of the rift. Sub-Moho velocities are probably normal outside the rifts themselves, though anomalously low upper-mantle velocities are to be associated with rifting. There is firm evidence for thinning of the lithosphere along the eastern branch of the rift. A cross-section of the Gregory Rift which is consistent with the current data is presented.     

Trace-element data relevant to the origin of trachytic and pantelleritic lavas in the East African Rift system

Determination of the trace-elements Ba, Ce, La, Nb, Rb, Sr and Zr have been made on lavas from six trachytic and pantelleritic volcanoes in the Kenyan and Ethiopian Rifts. Consideration of these data shows that Ce, La, Nb and Zr have behaved as truly residual elements. In the peralkaline suites examined, plotting other chemical parameters against a residual-element such as Zr appears to be informative. The individual residual-element ratios are constant at any one volcano suggesting that the salic and basic lavas are geochemieally related and that the trachytes and pantellerites do not have an origin independent of the associated basalts.Different values of individual residual-element ratios characterize different groups of volcanic centres. In the northern part of the Kenyan Rift, progressive change in these ratios with time can be traced.In the salic lavas, Ba and Sr show patterns of extreme depletion relative to the alkali basalts and these data suggest that the salic rocks are the result of protracted crystal-fractionation.The relative volumes of the extruded lava-types are discussed and it is suggested that the trachytic and pantelleritic centres developed above cupolas of salic magma situated on top of a large basaltic reservoir. It is likely that the preponderance of salic rocks and the scarcity of lavas of intermediate composition are not criteria by which one can rule out an origin of differentiation by crystal-fractionation.     

Mechanism of the Formation of the East African Rift System

正The East African Rift System(EARS)is located in East Africa,separating into two main branches,the eastern branch and the western branch.It is considered as an intracontinental ridge system,which meets the Red Sea and     

东非裂谷东支肯尼亚裂谷形成演化

东非裂谷东支肯尼亚裂谷包括5个重点凹陷,除South Lokichar凹陷外,其余凹陷均无发现。肯尼亚裂谷的形成演化及动力机制认识不清是制约油气勘探的关键。通过系统分析肯尼亚裂谷不同凹陷形成年代、裂谷类型和动力机制、构造演化和沉积充填过程,得到以下几点认识:(1)South Lokichar凹陷形成时间早,地层年代老。South Lokichar凹陷主要发育晚渐新世-中中新世地层;Turkana、Kerio及North Lokichar凹陷以中中新世-全新世地层为主;Kerio Valley凹陷主要发育中-晚中新世地层;(2)阿法尔地幔柱和肯尼亚地幔柱的隆升控制肯尼亚裂谷的形成演化。South Lokichar凹陷的形成演化主要受阿法尔地幔柱控制;其余4个凹陷主要受肯尼亚地幔柱控制;(3)不同类型的凹陷构造演化和沉积充填差异较大。South Lokichar凹陷与Kerio Valley凹陷为被动型裂谷,构造演化经历初始裂陷期、主裂陷期和裂陷后期三个阶段,在主裂陷期发育优质烃源岩;Turkana、Kerio及North Lokichar凹陷为主动型裂谷,构造演化包括火山事件活动期和间歇...     

Paleoclimatic estimates from water and energy budgets of East African Lakes

The Turkana, Nakuru-Elmenteita, and Naivasha basins in the Rift Valley of East Africa experienced high water levels during the period of 10,000–7000 yr B.P. Analyses of the modern hydrologic and energy budgets for these basins, along with that of Lake Victoria, were used to infer the amount of precipitation that would have been required to maintain the enlarged paleolakes of the early Holocene. Precipitation must have been at least 150–300 mm/yr (15 to 35%) above the modern average. The precipitation estimates were fairly consistent among the various basins, but no quantitative estimate was made for the additional precipitation required to account for overflow from the Rift Valley lake basins. Discharge from the Lake Victoria basin around 1880 A.D. was considerably above the more recent average, and the increased discharge into the White Nile for that period might have been similar to that of the early Holocene. A sensitivity analysis showed that temperature changes were probably not too important for changing the hydrologic-energy budget; changes of albedo, Bowen ratio, and cloudiness were likely to have been of greater importance.     

东非裂谷Kerio盆地石油地质特征与勘探潜力

东非裂谷东支的South Lokichar盆地于2012年获得勘探突破,成为研究和勘探的热点地区.但近年来周边盆地勘探效果不佳,有待深入分析.Kerio盆地紧邻South Lokichar盆地,勘探程度低,国内在此地的研究处于空白区.基于最新地震地质综合研究成果,阐述其石油地质特征和勘探潜力.结果表明:Kerio盆地为主动裂谷,呈西陡东缓的半地堑结构;发育渐新世以来的5套沉积地层,最大沉积厚度可达6500 m;存在一套被证实的烃源岩,生烃指标好,但厚度仅20 m;发育河流和三角洲相砂岩,孔渗物性好.盆地可划分为4个凹陷和5个构造圈闭带.中部缓坡带和东部反转构造带为盆地的有利勘探区带,可能存在2种成藏模式.盆地具有一定勘探潜力,烃源岩是最主要的地质风险.     

The southern extension of the East African Rift System and related igneous activity

New details of the late- and post-Karroo fracture pattern in eastern southern Africa are shown on a map together with associated igneous rocks. The pattern is remarkably like that of the East African Rift Valleys with which it is continuous.There is a close parallelism between the Rift fractures and intracratonic orogenic belts, and also locally between the fractures and foliation trends of the gneisses in the belts. Relief differences across the faults range up to 2000 feet; many of the Rifts are asymmetrical with displacement only along one side.Although earth movements were intermittent over a long period of time, two main episodes occurred during post-Karroo to Cretaceous and Tertiary to recent times. Forty-nine isotopic ages of igneous material are taken from the literature and indicate eruptive activity over a 100 m. y. period.

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Zusammenfassung Neue Einzelheiten über das Bruchmuster in der Spät- und Post-Karroo im Osten des südlichen Afrikas sowie über die damit verbundenen Magmagesteine sind auf einer Karte angegeben. Das Bruchmuster hat eine außerordentliche Ähnlichkeit mit dem Ostafrikanischen Graben, welcher eine Fortsetzung davon ist.Ein enger Parallelismus besteht zwischen den Brüchen des tektonischen Grabens und den intrakratonischen, orogenetischen Zonen sowie auch örtlich innerhalb der Zonen zwischen den Brüchen und dem Schieferungsstreichen der Gneise. Der Unterschied im Relief über die Verwerfungen hin ist bis zu 2000 feet; viele dieser tektonischen Gräben sind asymmetrisch, und Verschiebungen geschehen nur entlang einer Seite.Obgleich Erdbewegungen durch lange Zeiträume unterbrochen waren, konnten jedoch zwei Hauptepisoden von der Post-Karroo bis zur Kreide und von dem Tertiär bis zur heutigen Zeit festgestellt werden. Neunundvierzig isotopische Alter für Magmagestein sind in der Literatur zitiert und deuten auf eine eruptive Tätigkeit von über 100 M. J. hin.

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Résumé Nouveaux détails concernant le dessin de fracture pendant le Karroo Supérieur et le Post-Karroo dans l'est de l'Afrique méridionale ainsi que les roches ignées associées sont indiqués sur une carte. On y observe une similarité très remarquable entre le dessin de fracture de l'Afrique méridionale et celui du fossé tectonique de l'Afrique-Est, du quel il est un prolongement.Il y a un parallélisme étroit entre les fractures de fossé tectonique et les zones orogéniques ainsi que localement entre les fractures et la direction de foliation des gneisses dans les zones orogéniques. La différence en relief à travers les failles se range près de 2000 feet; beaucoup de fossés tectoniques sont asymmétriques; ils montrent un déplacement sur un côté seulement.Les mouvements de terre étaient intermittents pendant une longue période de temps; mais deux épisodes principaux se présentaient pendant le Karroo Supérieur jusqu'au Crétacé et pendant le Tertiaire jusqu'au Quaranteneuf âges isotopiques de roches ignées sont cités de la littérature consultée et les âges indiquent une activité eruptive plus de 100 m. a.

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Lake-groundwater relationships and fluid-rock interaction in the East African Rift Valley: isotopic evidence

The assessment of water resources in the Rift Valley environment is important for population, agriculture and energy-related issues and depends on a good understanding of the relationship between freshwater lakes and regional groundwater. This can be hampered by the amount of fluid-rock interaction which occurs throughout the rift, obscuring original hydrochemical signatures. However, O and H stable isotope ratios can be used as tracers of infiltration over sometimes considerable distances, while showing that the volcanic edifices of the rift floor have varying effects on groundwater flow patterns. Specific cases from Kenya and Ethiopia are considered, including Lakes Naivasha, Baringo, Awasa and Zwai.In addition to their physical tracing role, stable isotopes can reveal information about processes of fluid-rock interaction. The general lack of O isotope shifting in rift hydrothermal systems suggests a high water:rock ratio, with the implication that these systems are mature. Carbon isotope studies on the predominantly bicarbonate waters of the rift show how they evolve from dilute meteoric recharge to highly alkaline waters, via the widespread silicate hydrolysis promoted by the flux of mantle carbon dioxide which occurs in most parts of the rift. There appears to be only minor differences in the C cycle between Kenya and Ethiopia.     

Thermal and exhumation history of the central Rwenzori Mountains, Western Rift of the East African Rift System, Uganda

The Rwenzori Mountains (Mtns) in west Uganda are the highest rift mountains on Earth and rise to more than 5,000 m. We apply low-temperature thermochronology (apatite fission-track (AFT) and apatite (U–Th–Sm)/He (AHe) analysis) for tracking the cooling history of the Rwenzori Mtns. Samples from the central and northern Rwenzoris reveal AFT ages between 195.0 (±8.4) Ma and 85.3 (±5.3) Ma, and AHe ages between 210.0 (±6.0) Ma to 24.9 (±0.5) Ma. Modelled time–temperature paths reflect a protracted cooling history with accelerated cooling in Permo-Triassic and Jurassic times, followed by a long period of constant and slow cooling, than succeeded by a renewed accelerated cooling in the Neogene. During the last 10 Ma, differentiated erosion and surface uplift affected the Rwenzori Mtns, with more pronounced uplift along the western flank. The final rock uplift of the Rwenzori Mtns that partly led to the formation of the recent topography must have been fast and in the near past (Pliocene to Pleistocene). Erosion could not compensate for the latest rock uplift, resulting in Oligocene to Miocene AHe ages.     

Spatial and temporal geochemical variability in lacustrine sedimentation in the East African Rift System: Evidence from the Kenya Rift and regional analyses

Many previous studies on lacustrine basins in the East African Rift System have directed their attention to climatic controls on contemporary sedimentation or climate change as part of palaeoenvironmental reconstruction. In contrast, this research focuses on the impact of tectonism and volcanism on rift deposition and develops models that help to explain their roles and relative importance. The study focuses on the spatial and temporal variability in bulk sediment geochemistry from a diverse range of modern and ancient rift sediments through an analysis of 519 samples and 50 major and trace elements. The basins examined variously include, or have contained, wetlands and/or shallow to deep, fresh to hypersaline lakes. Substantial spatial variability is documented for Holocene to modern deposits in lakes Turkana, Baringo, Bogoria, Magadi and Malawi. Mio‐Pleistocene sediments in the Central Kenya Rift and Quaternary deposits of the southern Kenya Rift illustrate temporal variability. Tectonic and volcanic controls on geochemical variability are explained in terms of: (i) primary controlling factors (faulting, subsidence, uplift, volcanism, magma evolution and antecedent lithologies and landscapes); (ii) secondary controls (bedrock types, rift shoulder and axis elevations, accommodation space, meteoric and hydrothermal fluids and mantle CO ₂); and (iii) response factors (catchment area size, orographic rains, rain shadows, vegetation densities, erosion and weathering rates, and spring/runoff ratios). The models developed have, in turn, important implications for palaeoenvironmental interpretation in other depositional basins.     

Processing and interpretation of the gravity field of the East African Rift: implication for crustal extension

Compilation of new and existing gravity data were undertaken to assess the nature of the crust beneath the East African Rift System. Using 3D gravity modeling code crustal model of gravity profiles across two sectors of the rift were computed. The results are discussed in light of the structure of the rift system.The results of the 3D modeling of gravity profiles across the two rift zones revealed northward thinning of the crust. The maximum crustal attenuation occurs beneath the Afar depression, indicating the Afar rift undergoes an intense fragmentation of the crust resulting from faulting and magmatic activity. However, our computed crustal thickness below the Afar depression falls within an upper bound compared to elsewhere below tectonically active rift zones. This can be explained in terms of crustal accretion resulting from an impact of the Afar mantle plume since 30 Ma ago.The residual gravity obtained using high-cut filtering techniques reveals significant density contrast between the northern and southern sectors of the rift. The northern part of the rift is characterized by regular patterns of positive gravity anomalies, which can be interpreted in terms of a zone of crustal thinning through which relatively dense materials have intruded the overlying crust. In contrast, south of the Main Ethiopian Rift, the anomalies are characterized by random patterns and low amplitudes. The along-rift-axis variation in gravity anomalies implies that the style of crustal deformation changed progressively, beginning with regionally distributed crustal deformation, such as the one we observe within the more juvenile and wider southern segment of the rift, to localized deformation within the active and narrow rift zones of the northern sector of the Ethiopian Rift. We suggest that the key parameters controlling along-rift-axis variation in gravity anomalies are the rate of crustal extension, faulting and magmatic activities.     

东非裂谷东支South Lokichar盆地石油地质特征及成藏规律

东非裂谷东支由多个盆地组成,South Lokichar是唯一有油气发现的盆地,目前对于该盆地的石油地质特征及成藏规律仍认识不清,严重制约着东非裂谷东支下一步勘探.本文综合利用钻井、地震、岩芯、薄片以及分析化验等资料,对South Lokichar盆地的构造和地层发育特征、关键成藏条件和影响因素以及成藏规律进行详细分析...     

东非裂谷系西支中南段Karoo地层分布特点与勘探前景

东非裂谷系一直是世界油气勘探重点关注区,尤其在西支Albertine盆地获得重大油气发现,而与之具有相似成因演化的西支中南段其它盆地,勘探潜力一直不明朗并急待挖掘。中-古生代Karoo地层及分布在该地区广泛分布,特别是作为烃源和主要的勘探层系在东非海岸陆缘盆地被广泛证实后,Karoo的勘探潜力备受关注。然而,Karoo本身经过漫长的演变,涵盖的地质学内容包罗万象,混淆不清,十分不利于该地区油气勘探潜力的研究和判断。本文通过系统查阅国外文献并结合东非裂谷系的研究工作,初步查明Karoo的成因、演变及分布,并系统评价Karoo地层在西支中南段裂谷盆地及周边的分布,探讨其勘探意义。但以Karoo作为东非地区未来勘探领域仍然面临着一系列不确定性的问题和风险,值得思索和总结。     

Non‐uniform splitting of a single mantle plume by double cratonic roots: Insight into the origin of the central and southern East African Rift System

Using numerical thermo‐mechanical experiments we analyse the role of an active mantle plume and pre‐existing lithospheric thickness differences in the structural development of the central and southern East African Rift system. The plume‐lithosphere interaction model setup captures the essential features of the studied area: two cratonic bodies embedded into surrounding lithosphere of normal thickness. The results of the numerical experiments suggest that localization of rift branches in the crust is mainly defined by the initial position of the mantle plume relative to the cratons. We demonstrate that development of the Eastern branch, the Western branch and the Malawi rift can be the result of non‐uniform splitting of the Kenyan plume, which has been rising underneath the southern part of the Tanzanian craton. Major features associated with Cenozoic rifting can thus be reproduced in a relatively simple model of the interaction between a single mantle plume and pre‐stressed continental lithosphere with double cratonic roots.     

东非裂谷系统(EARS)地幔柱成因的新生代火山作用地球化学标志

本文应用岩浆岩地球化学图解对东非裂谷系统(EARS)火山岩的岩石地球化学数据进行处理,重点回顾和讨论埃塞俄比亚大裂谷(MER)、阿法(Afar)盆地及肯尼亚裂谷火山作用的构造环境和地幔柱成因.MER火山岩的岩石类型具双峰式火山岩套特征,以高Ti的大陆溢流玄武岩(CFB)-大陆洋岛玄武岩(OIB)-流纹岩系列为主,缺少中性岩,是来自地幔柱岩浆分异的结果,与板块俯冲作用无关.阿法(Afar)盆地和红海为CFB-MORB系列.肯尼亚裂谷(KR)及埃塞俄比亚大裂谷最南端图尔卡纳盆地只见以大陆OIB,缺乏流纹岩.EARS是一个主动型地幔柱,由地幔上涌冲击地壳底部而成,其火山岩以富集常量元素Ti、Fe和Mg,富集高场强元素Nb、Ta和相容元素V、Cr、Co和Ni为特征.绝大多数EARS火山岩的Nb/Zr>0.04和Ta/Hf比值>0.1,在地球化学-构造环境判别图上落在板内火山岩的范围内(大洋板内和地幔柱),集中在Nb/Zr>0.15和Ta/Hf比值>0.3范围内的火山岩样品可能为主动地幔柱成因.根据La/Nb、Ce/Pb和Ba/La比值,地幔柱成因的MER火山岩可分为受地壳混染地幔和未受地壳混染的原始地幔两种类型.La/Nb(≤1)、Ce/Pb(30~50)、Ba/Nb比值(>10)和La/Yb≤12是来源于未受地壳混染原始地幔的重要判别标志.地球化学证据(微量元素,Sr-Nd-Pb-He同位素)表明,MER-阿拉伯-也门地幔柱起源于深部核-幔边界的HIMU.MER-Afar的前裂谷和同裂谷火山岩(50-12 Ma)具有高的3He同位素标志(R/Ra比值>16.4)说明其非洲板块之下存在一个深藏的地幔岩浆源深度大于670 km,位于石榴子石-尖晶石橄榄岩过渡带(图6b、c、d).MER-Afar大火山岩省及其最南端图尔卡纳湖和肯尼亚地体(克拉通,改造的克拉通边缘和活动带)深部地壳底部之下的HIMU地幔可能是导致裂谷型的OIB和CFB异常发育的岩浆源区,而Afar洼地(吉布提)、红海和亚丁湾形成于后裂谷期(5~0 Ma)的MORB和亏损LREE玄武岩则归因于HIMU、富集地幔(EM1-EM2)与DM混合地幔源的熔融,其岩浆源区位地壳拉张减薄带之下的尖晶石橄榄岩区.     

Erosion of lithospheric mantle beneath the East African Rift system: geochemical evidence from the Kivu volcanic province

This study presents new major and trace element and Sr–Nd isotopic results for a suite of Miocene–Recent mafic lavas from the Kivu volcanic province in the western branch of the East African Rift. These lavas exhibit a very wide range in chemical and isotopic characteristics, due to a lithospheric mantle source region that is heterogeneous on a small scale, probably <1 km. The chemical and isotopic variations are mostly geographically controlled: lavas from Tshibinda volcano, which lies on a rift border fault on the northwestern margin of the province, have higher values of ⁸⁷Sr/⁸⁶Sr, (La/Sm)_n, Ba/Nb, and Zr/Hf than the majority of Kivu (Bukavu) samples. The range of ⁸⁷Sr/⁸⁶Sr at Tshibinda (0.70511–0.70514) overlaps some compositions found in the neighboring Virunga province, while Bukavu group lavas include the lowest ⁸⁷Sr/⁸⁶Sr (0.70314) and highest _Nd (+7.6) yet measured in western rift lavas. The Tshibinda compositions trend towards a convergence for Sr–Nd–Pb isotopic values among western rift lavas. Among Kivu lavas, variations in ¹⁴³Nd/¹⁴⁴Nd correlate with those for certain incompatible trace element ratios (e.g., Th/Nb, Zr/Hf, La/Nb, Ba/Rb), with Tshibinda samples defining one compositional extreme. There are covariations of isotopic and trace element ratios in mafic lavas of the East African Rift system that vary systematically with geographic location. The lavas represent a magmatic sampling of variations in the underlying continental lithospheric mantle, and it appears that a common lithospheric mantle (CLM) source is present beneath much of the East African Rift system. This source contains minor amphibole and phlogopite, probably due to widespread metasomatic events between 500 and 1000 Ma. Lava suites which do not show a strong component of the CLM source, and for which the chemical constraints also suggest the shallowest magma formation depths, are the Bukavu group lavas from Kivu and basanites from Huri Hills, Kenya. The inferred extent of lithospheric erosion therefore appears to be significant only beneath these two areas, which is generally consistent with lithospheric thickness variations estimated from gravity and seismic studies.