Recent Advances and Difficulties of Infrasonic Wave Investigation in the Ionosphere

Acoustic waves have a remarkable ability to transfer energy from the ground up to the uppermost layers of the atmosphere. On the ground, there are many permanent sources of infrasound, and also pulsed and/or sporadic sources (e.g., sea waves, infrasonic and sonic noise of cities, lightning, earthquakes, explosions, etc.). The infrasonic waves carry away the major part of their energy upwards through the atmosphere. What are the consequences of the upward energy transfer? What heights of the atmosphere are supplied by energy from various sources of an infrasonic wave? In most cases, the answers to these questions are not well known at present. The only opportunity to monitor the propagation of an infrasonic wave to high altitudes is to watch for its influence on the ionospheric plasma. Unfortunately, most of standard equipment for ionospheric sounding, as a rule, cannot detect plasma fluctuations in the infrasonic range. Besides, the form of an infrasonic wave strongly varies during propagation due to nonlinear effects. However, the development of the Doppler method of radiosounding of the ionosphere has enabled progress to be made. Simultaneously, the ionospheric method for sensing aboveground and underground explosions has been developed. Its main advantage is the remote observation of an explosion in the near field zone by means of short radio waves, i.e., the radio sounding of the ionosphere directly above the explosion. The theory of propagation of an acoustic pulse produced by an explosion on the ground up to ionospheric heights has been developed better than the theory for other sources, and has been quantitatively confirmed by experiments. A review of some advances in the area of infrasound investigations at ionospheric heights is given and some current problems are presented.     

Use of the index of TEC vertical variation disturbance in studying ionospheric effects of the Chelyabinsk meteorite

The results of an analysis of the ionospheric effects accompanying fall of the Chelyabinsk meteorite on February 15, 2013 are presented using a method of calculating the index of the disturbance of total electron content vertical variations (Wtec) according to data from the GPS receiver network. A substantial increase (by a factor of 2–3) in the Wtec index with a duration of ~1.5 h was observed in the studied region after the main height explosion accompanying the meteorite fall at 0320 UT. The ionospheric response in Wtec was most significant statistically registered at the radio rays “receiver–satellite” for the GPS located southward from the place of explosion.     

On the GPS-based ionospheric perturbation after the Tohoku earthquake of March 11, 2011

Based on the data from the GPS receiving networks in Japan and America which have a high time resolution (2 min), two-dimensional (2D) distributions of the variations in the ionospheric total electron content (TEC) are constructed both close to and far from of the epicenter of the submarine earthquake of March 11, 2011 in Japan. Above the epicenter, a diverging multi-period disturbance appears after the main shock due to the acoustic gravity waves. Far from the epicenter, the wave trains associated with the tsunamigenic atmospheric internal gravity waves are revealed. These atmospheric waves significantly advance the arrival of the tsunami signal initially on the Hawaiian islands and then on the western coast of North America. The presence of the tsunami precursor in the form of atmospheric gravity waves is supported by the numerical calculations and by the analysis of the dispersion relation for the waves in the atmosphere. The detected ionospheric responses close and far from the epicenter can be used in the early tsunami warning systems.     

Recording the Response of the Chelyabinsk Meteoroid Fall by Dual-Frequency and Single-Frequency GPS Equipment

The Chelyabinsk meteoroid fall has been used to show that an appropriate ionospheric response can be recorded from signals of satellite radar systems. This can be done using dual-frequency or single-frequency equipment. The recording time of the response commencement has been used to estimate the propagation rate of primary disturbance in the atmosphere.     

Tracking the North Korean nuclear explosion of 2006, using seismic data from Japan and satellite data from Taiwan

The location of the 2006 nuclear explosion in North Korea has been accurately imaged by back-projected regional Pn waves recorded by the Japanese Hi-net array. Based on the determined location, the nuclear explosion site can be identified from geo-referenced FORMOSAT-2 satellite images. The seismically determined epicenter is about 2.5 km northeast of the original estimate of its absolute location. Results indicate that a remote suspect event had been unambiguously detected and accurately located by a dense array within a regional distance. Employing ground truth correction, the satellite images can be referenced for shifting the array-determined epicenter to its absolute position. After correction, this event can be treated as a reference event for accurately locating future nuclear explosions. Our study utilizes public information from a dense seismic network and further demonstrates that commercial observation satellites can accurately monitor compliance with the Comprehensive Nuclear-Test-Ban Treaty, as well as earthquake and tsunami hazards almost in real time.     

太原基准地震台核爆震相识别

对太原基准地震台记录的核爆及天然地震波形进行对比分析,结果显示：①与天然地震相比,核爆震相特征相对独特;②地震优势频率较窄,而核爆优势频率则较宽,即对于震中距相近、当量不同的核爆波形,太原台记录的时频变化特征相似;③对于震中距相近的天然地震与核爆波形,太原台记录的时频特征差异明显。     

利用GPS网观测反射海啸波引发的电离层扰动

震中产生的海啸波传播到海岸或者遇到水下障碍时会发生反射,从而形成反射海啸波.本文利用稠密的日本GEONET网,首次在电离层扰动图中观测到2011年3月11日Tohoku地震引发的反射海啸波信号.观测到的电离层扰动与海平面的反射海啸波具有相似的波形、水平速度、方向、周期以及到达时间等传播特征,表明观测的电离层扰动为反射海啸波所引起,本文的观测结果表明反射海啸产生的大气内重力波也能向上传播到电离层与等离子体作用.     

Magnetospheric Effects during the Approach of the Chelyabinsk Meteoroid

We have analyzed the observational results for variations in the main geomagnetic field and its fluctuations in the range of periods 1–1000 s that accompanied the approach of the Chelyabinsk space body to the magnetosphere and ionosphere of the Earth. The measurements were conducted with a magnetometerfluxmeter near the city of Kharkiv, as well as with the network of magnetometers located at the observatories of Novosibirsk, Kyiv, Lviv, Almaty, Khabarovsk, Arti, Borok, and Yakutsk. Variations in the main geomagnetic field and its fluctuations approximately 33–47 min prior to the explosion of the Chelyabinsk meteoroid have been discovered; they persisted for 25–35 min and were probably associated with meteoroid passage through the magnetosphere. The amplitude of variations reached 1–6 nT. We have proposed a model of the generation of aperiodic, quasi-periodic, and noise-like variations in the geomagnetic field induced by the approach of a space body.     

Large-scale ionospheric gradients over Europe observed in October 2003

It is well known that ionospheric perturbations are characterised by strong horizontal gradients and rapid changes of the ionisation. Thus, space weather induced severe ionosphere perturbations can cause serious technological problems in Global Navigation Satellite Systems (GNSS) such as GPS. During the severe ionosphere storm period of 29–31 October 2003, reported were several significant malfunctions due to the adverse effects of the ionosphere perturbations such as interruption of the WAAS service and degradation of mid-latitudes GPS reference services. To properly warn service users of such effects, a quick evaluation of the current signal propagation conditions expressed in a suitable ionospheric perturbation index would be of great benefit. Preliminary results of a comparative study of ionospheric gradients including vertical sounding and Total Electron Content (TEC) data are presented. Strong enhancements of latitudinal gradients and temporal changes of the ionisation are observed over Europe during the 29–30 October storm period. The potential use of spatial gradients and rate of change of foF2 and TEC characterising the actual perturbation degree of the ionosphere is discussed. It has been found that perturbation induced spatial gradients of TEC and foF2 strongly enhance during the ionospheric storm on 29 October over the Central European region in particular in North–South direction exceeding the gradients in East–West direction by a factor of 2.     

Analysis of Russian Hydroacoustic Data for CTBT Monitoring

—?As part of a collaborative research program for the purpose of monitoring the Comprehensive Nuclear-Test-Ban Treaty (CTBT), we are in the process of examining and analyzing hydroacoustic data from underwater explosions conducted in the former Soviet Union. We are using these data as constraints on modeling the hydroacoustic source as a function of depth below the water surface. This is of interest to the CTBT because although even small explosions at depth generate signals easily observable at large distances, the hydroacoustic source amplitude decreases as the source approaches the surface. Consequently, explosions in the ocean will be more difficult to identify if they are on or near the ocean surface. We are particularly interested in records featuring various combinations of depths of explosion, and distances and depths of recording.¶Unique historical Russian data sets have now become available from test explosions of 100-kg TNT cast spherical charges in a shallow reservoir (87?m length, 25?m to 55?m width, and 3?m depth) with a low-velocity air-saturated layer of sand on the bottom. A number of tests were conducted with varying water level and charge depths. Pressure measurements were taken at varying depths and horizontal distances in the water. The available data include measurements of peak pressures from all explosions and digitized pressure-time histories from some of them. A reduction of peak pressure by about 60–70% is observed in these measurements for half-immersed charges as compared with deeper explosions. In addition, several peak-pressure measurements are also available from a 1957 underwater nuclear explosion (yield <10?kt and depth 30?m) in the Bay of Chernaya (Novaya Zemlya).¶The 100-kg TNT data were compared with model predictions. Shockwave modeling is based on spherical wave propagation and finite element calculations, constrained by empirical data from US underwater chemical and nuclear tests. Modeling was performed for digitized pressure-time histories from two fully-immersed explosions and one explosion of a half-immersed charge, as well as for the peak-pressure measurements from all explosions carried out in the reservoir with water level at its maximum (3?m). We found that the model predictions match the Russian data well.¶Peak-pressure measurements and pressure-time histories were simulated at 10?km distance from hypothetical 1-kt and 10-kt nuclear explosions conducted at various depths in the ocean. The ocean water was characterized by a realistic sound velocity profile featuring a velocity minimum at 700?m depth. Simulated measurements at that same depth predict at least a tenfold increase in peak pressures from explosions in the SOFAR channel as compared with very shallow explosions (e.g., ～3?m depth).¶ The observations and the modeling results were also compared with predictions calculated at the Lawrence Livermore National Laboratory using a different modeling approach. All results suggest that although the coupling is reduced for very shallow explosions, a shallow 1-kt explosion should be detectable by the IMS hydroacoustic network.     

Effects of Rock Damage on Seismic Waves Generated by Explosions

—?In studying the physical processes involved in the generation of seismic waves by explosions, it is important to understand what happens in the region of high stresses immediately surrounding the explosion. This paper examines one of the processes that takes place in this region, the growth of pre-existing cracks, which is described quantitatively as an increase in rock damage. An equivalent elastic method is used to approximate the stress field surrounding the explosion and a micro-mechanical model of damage is used to calculate the increase in damage. Simulations for a 1?kt explosion reveal that the region of increased damage can be quite large, up to ten times the cavity radius. The damage is initiated on a damage front that propagates outward behind the explosive stress wave with a velocity intermediate between that of P and S waves. Calculations suggest that the amount of increased damage is controlled primarily by the initial damage and the extent of the region of increased damage is controlled primarily by the initial crack radius. The motions that occur on individual cracks when damage increases are converted to seismic moment tensors which are then used to calculate secondary elastic waves which radiate into the far field. It is found that, while the contribution from an individual crack is small, the combined effect of many cracks in a large region of increased damage can generate secondary waves that are comparable in amplitude to the primary waves generated by the explosion. Provided that there is asymmetry in the damage pattern, this process is quite effective in generating S waves, thus providing a quantitative explanation of how S waves can be generated by an explosion. Two types of asymmetry are investigated, a shear pre-stress and a preferred orientation of cracks, and it is found that both produce similar effects.     

2019年3月江苏响水化工厂爆炸当量的估计

2019年3月21日江苏盐城响水化工厂发生爆炸,造成了巨大的人员伤亡和财产损失.人们很关心这次爆炸的规模以及它相当于多大当量的炸药爆炸.随着观测资料的增多与地震学方法的发展,利用地震学方法估算爆炸当量成为可能.本文收集了广岛核爆事件、美国化学爆炸试验、长白山人工震源勘探、朝鲜六次核试爆资料和前人研究成果,讨论了爆炸当量与爆炸所产生地震震级的关系,计算了爆炸能量转换地震波能量的比例.当某次爆炸发生时,如果其产生的地震事件被台站记录到,我们可以估算地震波的能量.进而根据地震波能量在爆炸总能量中的比例,估算爆炸事件释放的能量.本研究估计江苏响水爆炸事故所释放炸药量约为2.8~8.5tTNT炸药.     

Lower atmospheric anomalies following the 2008 Wenchuan Earthquake observed by GPS measurements

The Mw=8.0 Wenchuan Earthquake occurred on May 12, 2008 at the Longmen Shan fault, the western Sichuan Basin, China, killing more than ten thousand people in several cities and causing large economic losses. Global Positioning System (GPS) observations have provided unique insights on this event, including co-seismic ionospheric disturbances, co-/post-seismic crustal deformations and fault slip distributions. However, the processes and the driving mechanisms are still not clear, particularly possible seismo-lower atmospheric–ionospheric coupling behaviors. In this paper, the lower atmospheric (tropospheric) variations are investigated using the total zenith tropospheric delay (ZTD) from GPS measurements around this event. It has the first found co-seismic tropospheric anomalies during the mainshock with an increase and then a decrease, mainly in the zenith hydrostatic delay component (ZHD), while it is also supported by the same pattern of surface-observed atmospheric pressure changes at co-located GPS site that are driven by the ground-coupled air waves from ground vertical motion of seismic waves propagation. Therefore, the co-seismic tropospheric disturbances (CTD) indicate again the acoustic coupling effect of the atmosphere and the solid-Earth with air wave propagation from the ground to the top atmosphere.     

Estimation of the Critical Frequency in the Radio Sounding of the Ionosphere on Board High-Orbit Spacecrafts over the Arctic Region

A possibility of estimating the local value of the plasma frequency of the F2 layer ionospheric maximum (subionospheric region) according to the multifrequency sounding data of the arctic ionosphere from high-elliptical spacecrafts was considered. The data in the form of the frequency dependence of the group path of the sounding signal, the transionogram, were synthesized in the results of mathematical modeling. The energetic potential of proposed method, the wave field mode structure, and uncertainty of the critical frequency estimation according to the measured cut-off frequencies of magnetoionic components of the transionogram were analyzed. It was shown that the expected potential uncertainty of foF2 estimation is somewhat higher than that for the case of maximum reliable ground based data, but it is, in general, substantially less than the methods that use measurements of the total electron content in GPS technology. We discussed physical feasibility for a realization of the method for ionospheric state diagnostics.     

Reconstructing Regional Ionospheric Electron Density: A Combined Spherical Slepian Function and Empirical Orthogonal Function Approach

The computerized ionospheric tomography is a method for imaging the Earth’s ionosphere using a sounding technique and computing the slant total electron content (STEC) values from data of the global positioning system (GPS). The most common approach for ionospheric tomography is the voxel-based model, in which (1) the ionosphere is divided into voxels, (2) the STEC is then measured along (many) satellite signal paths, and finally (3) an inversion procedure is applied to reconstruct the electron density distribution of the ionosphere. In this study, a computationally efficient approach is introduced, which improves the inversion procedure of step 3. Our proposed method combines the empirical orthogonal function and the spherical Slepian base functions to describe the vertical and horizontal distribution of electron density, respectively. Thus, it can be applied on regional and global case studies. Numerical application is demonstrated using the ground-based GPS data over South America. Our results are validated against ionospheric tomography obtained from the constellation observing system for meteorology, ionosphere, and climate (COSMIC) observations and the global ionosphere map estimated by international centers, as well as by comparison with STEC derived from independent GPS stations. Using the proposed approach, we find that while using 30 GPS measurements in South America, one can achieve comparable accuracy with those from COSMIC data within the reported accuracy (1 × 10¹¹ el/cm³) of the product. Comparisons with real observations of two GPS stations indicate an absolute difference is less than 2 TECU (where 1 total electron content unit, TECU, is 10¹⁶ electrons/m²).     

Tomographic imaging of the ionosphere using the GPS/MET and NNSS data

The earlier experiments of ionospheric tomography were conducted by receiving satellite signals from ground-based stations and then reconstructing electron density distribution from measures of the total electron content (TEC). In June 1994, National Central University built up the low-latitude ionospheric tomography network (LITN) including six ground stations spanning a range of 16.7° (from 14.6°N to 31.3°N) in latitude within 1° of 121°E longitude to receive the naval navigation satellite system (NNSS) signals (150 and 400 MHz). In the study of tomographic imaging of the ionosphere, TEC data from a network of ground-based stations can provide detailed information on the horizontal structure, but are of restricted utility in sensing vertical structure. However, an occultation observation mission termed the global positioning system/meteorology (GPS/MET) program used a low Earth orbiting (LEO) satellite (the MicroLab-1) to receive multi-channel GPS carrier phase signals (1.5 and 1.2 GHz) and demonstrate active limb sounding of the Earth's atmosphere and ionosphere. In this paper, we have implemented the multiplicative algebraic reconstruction technique (MART) to reconstruct and compare two-dimensional ionospheric structures from measured TECs through the receptions of the GPS signals, the NNSS signals, and/or both of the systems. We have also concluded the profiles retrieved from tomographic reconstruction showing much reasonable electron density results than the original vertical profiles retrieved by the Abel transformation and being in more agreement in peak electron density to nearby ionosonde measurements.     

Anomalous modification of the ionospheric total electron content prior to the 26 September 2005 Peru earthquake

This paper investigates the features of pre-earthquake ionospheric anomalies in the total electron content (TEC) data obtained on the basis of regular GPS observations from the International GNSS Service (IGS) network. For the analysis of the ionospheric effects of the 26 September 2005 Peru earthquake, Global Ionospheric Maps (GIMs) of TEC were used. The possible influence of the earthquake preparation processes on the main low-latitude ionosphere peculiarity—the equatorial anomaly—is discussed. Analysis of the TEC maps has shown that modification of the equatorial anomaly occurred a few days before the earthquake. In previous days, during the evening and night hours (local time—LT), a specific transformation of the TEC distribution had taken place. This modification took the shape of a double-crest structure with a trough near the epicenter, though usually in this time the restored normal latitudinal distribution with a maximum near the magnetic equator is observed. Additional measurements (CHAMP satellite) have also confirmed the presence of this structure. To compare the vertical TEC measurements obtained with GPS satellite signals (GPS TEC), the International Reference Ionosphere, IRI-2001, was used for calculating the IRI TEC.     

2019年长宁M_S 6.0地震前后电离层垂直电子总含量（VTEC）异常扰动分析

2019长宁发生M_S 6.0地震,利用CODE全球电离层格网数据、中国地壳运动观测网络GPS数据、震中区域GPS数据,分别计算全球、中国区域垂直电子总含量(VTEC)异常分布及震中区域站点VTEC时间序列,揭示此次地震发生前后不同空间尺度电离层异常扰动变化。结果表明:地震发生前3天(6月14日),长宁震区上空出现连续电离层异常扰动现象,异常空间分布呈现向磁赤道偏移趋势。VTEC结果的时、空尺度变化反映,本次电离层扰动可能与长宁地震孕震过程有关,可为川滇区域临震电离层异常扰动监测及地震分析预报提供震例依据。     

Changes in the ionosphere prior to weak earthquakes in the Irkutsk region

Data from 15-minute measurements at the vertical ionospheric sounding station in Irkutsk during the summer months of 2008–2011 are analyzed in order to detect in the ionosphere effects of preparation of weak earthquakes of the K = 10–12 energy class. The method of revealing disturbances in ionospheric parameters by simultaneous observations of the sporadic E layer and regular F2 layer, which was previously applied by the authors in the case of stronger earthquakes, was used. The efficiency of using this method to detect ionospheric disturbances preceding earthquakes also in the case of weak earthquakes is demonstrated. Possible ionospheric precursors of the selected series of earthquakes are identified. For them, an empirical dependence relating the time of advance of the shock moment by the probable ionospheric precursor on the energy class of the earthquake and the epicenter distance to the observation point is found.     

Geomagnetic field effects of the Chelyabinsk meteoroid

An analysis was conducted of time variations in geomagnetic field components on the day of the Chelyabinsk meteorite event (February 15, 2013) and on control days (February 12 and 16, 2013). The analysis uses the data collected by magnetic observatories in Novosibirsk, Almaty, Kyiv, and Lviv. The distance R from the explosion site to the observatories varies in the range 1200–2700 km. The flyby and explosion of the Chelyabinsk cosmic body is found to have been accompanied by variations mainly in the horizontal component of the geomagnetic field. The variations are quasi-periodic with a period of 30–40 min, an amplitude of 0.5–2 nT for R ≈ 2700?1200 km, respectively, and a duration of 2–3 h. The horizontal velocity of the geomagnetic field disturbances is close to 260–370 m/s. A theoretical model of wave disturbances is proposed. According to the model, wave disturbances in the geomagnetic field are caused (a) by the motion of the gravity wave generated in the atmosphere by the falling space body and (b) by traveling ionospheric disturbances, which modulate the ionospheric current at dynamo altitudes. The calculated amplitudes of the wave disturbances are 0.6–1.8 nT for R ≈ 2700?1200 km, respectively. The estimates are in good agreement with the observational data. Disturbances in the geomagnetic field level (geomagnetic pulsations) in the period range 1–1000 s are negligible (less than 1 nT).