A modelling study of the effect of ice particle sizes and relative velocity on ice crystal/graupel collisional charge transfer

The effect of ice particle sizes and relative velocity on the sign of charge transfer during graupel/ice crystal interactions in thunderstorms is considered based on the concept of the Relative Growth Rate Hypothesis that the ice surface growing faster by water vapour diffusion charges positively. Diffusional growth rates of ice crystals and riming graupel particles are calculated for various particle sizes and velocities, and the sign of charging during crystal/graupel collisions is determined. The study reveals that larger graupel charges more negatively, while larger ice crystals, or higher relative velocity, lead to increased positive graupel charging.     

雷暴对流起电机制理论分析

本文用一维分层模式理论分析了地面降雨、尖端放电、对流运动以及云外电导率变化对雷暴电结构的影响。分析指出,云内对流强度明显地影响着雷暴电结构,强烈的地面降雨和尖端放电可使地面电场强度显著减小,甚至极性翻转。闪电和云顶附近的下沉气流是维持雷暴向上提供充电电流的重要条件。在雷暴中,对流起电机制是一个不可忽略的重要过程。     

A study of charge structure sensitivity in simulated thunderstorms

Two different thunderstorms are simulated by two distinct one-dimensional cloud models using four different parameterisations of the non-inductive mechanism of electric charging, based on laboratory studies. The results demonstrate that during the early (pre-lightning) stage of thunderstorm electrification, simulated charge density depends not only on the model charging parameterisation employed, but also on the specific representations of the kinematics and microphysical characteristics of the model itself. Though no conclusions are drawn regarding the physical suitability of the charging parameterisations themselves, the analysis indicates that the most significant differences between the simulated charge structures of the clouds produced in each particular model are the result of different distributions of model cloud characteristics and of the type of parameterisation of the microphysical processes. The study reveals that it is too early to make any conclusion regarding which, if any, of the existing parameterisation schemes are better suited to the realistic simulation of electrical charging in real clouds.     

云水饱和度对雷暴云非感应起电过程的影响

在三维强风暴动力—电耦合数值模式中引入基于Saunders et al.(1991) 实验结果的非感应起电参数化方案S91,在此基础上,利用云水饱和度替代环境温度和有效液水含量将S91方案变形.对比分析一次雷暴单体首次放电前,变形后的S91方案和原S91方案模拟得到的非感应转移电荷的极性、量级、电荷结构以及与霰和冰晶粒子分布之间的关系.结果表明,虽然两种方案采用的电荷密度变化率以及每次碰撞平均转移的电荷量均相同,但不同方案中决定粒子间电荷转移的因子不同对电荷的分布存在较大的影响.加入云水饱和度的S91方案,非感应转移电荷的极性多为正极性,电荷结构先呈单极性后转变为三极性,并有进一步转变为偶极性的趋势.但这两种方案模拟得到的霰与冰晶粒子电荷分布的重合区的范围、大小均不同,这也是造成两种方案电荷结构和转移电荷分布不同的主要原因.     

On the generation of charge layers in MCS stratiform regions

We suggest a quantitative one-dimensional model treating the formation of charge layers near the 0 °C isotherm in stratiform regions of mesoscale convective systems. A number of factors principal for the field generation have been taken into account: both non-inductive and inductive melting charging, light ions, a complicated profile of the vertical air velocity near the 0 °С isotherm, the boundary conditions proper for the horizontally extended systems in the global electric circuit. Non-inductive collisional charging near the 0 °C isotherm was not considered. It was found that both non-inductive and inductive melting mechanisms can contribute; the inductive melting charging of ice aggregates was found more preferable, while the contribution of non-inductive mechanisms might be significant depending on particular conditions. The role of light ions in the formation of the positive charge layer near the 0 °C isotherm may be important. If the advection from the convective region ensures charge inflow to the upper charged layers, the melting charging mechanisms are able to explain an observable electric field structure in the whole stratiform region. It is important that the mutual position of the zero point on the vertical air velocity profile and the point of maximum melting-charge-transfer determines the fine structure of the electric field in the vicinity of the 0 °C isotherm.     

Charge source of cloud-to-ground lightning and charge structure of a typical thunderstorm in the Chinese Inland Plateau

GPS-synchronized measurements of electric (E) field changes induced by lightning flashes were recorded at six stations in the northeastern verge of the Tibetan Plateau. The height and magnitude of charge neutralized by 65 return strokes, including 16 negative cloud-to-ground (CG) flashes and 2 positive CG flashes, have been fitted with the nonlinear least-square method based on the E field changes of CG flashes observed in a typical thunderstorm with larger-than-usual lower positive charge center (LPCC). Results show that the height of the charge region neutralized by negative CG flashes ranges from 3 km to 5 km above the ground, corresponding to an ambient temperature between − 2 °C and − 15 °C. For the two positive CG flashes, the neutralized charge regions are located at a height of about 5.5 km and the ambient temperature is about − 18 °C, indicating the existence of upper positive charge in the thunderstorm.     

冰晶核化对雷暴云闪电行为影响的数值模拟研究

为了探讨冰晶核化对雷暴云闪电行为的影响,通过已有的三维对流云起、放电模式探讨对比了3种冰晶核化方案,分别为原模式中的经验公式YS方案及与气溶胶相关的DE方案和LP方案。研究表明冰晶核化方案对雷暴云内冰晶微物理发展特征、起电及放电过程均有一定影响。模拟结果显示:(1)考虑了气溶胶的两种新参数化方案中冰晶粒子在高温区(高于-13.8℃)出现,在雷暴云发展过程中DE方案和LP方案冰晶的垂直分布均大于YS方案。(2)DE方案和LP方案中高温区出现的冰晶所带电荷极性有明显的反转现象,导致雷暴云电荷结构产生差异;雷暴云发展旺盛时刻DE方案和LP方案出现三级性电荷结构,而YS方案在整个雷暴云过程都是偶极性,并且DE方案和LP方案中电荷空间分布区域更加广泛。(3)不同核化方案下雷暴云放电特征存在差异,YS方案在偶极性电荷结构背景下没有负地闪产生,而DE方案和LP方案中次正电荷区的存在促进了负地闪的发生,并且负先导出现在较低的高度范围内;DE方案和LP方案中电荷量级较大,因此云闪发生频次以及正、负先导传播次数增加明显。     

Numerical simulation of the relationship between electrification and microphysics in the prelightning stage of thunderstorms

To further investigate the influence of cloud base temperature, updraft velocity and precipitation particle constitution on cloud electrification, five thunderstorms in various regions of China were simulated by using the three-dimensional compressible hailstorm numerical model including inductive and non-inductive charging mechanisms. The results indicate that changes of cloud base temperature have an influence on the initial electrification. Comparison of the above cases shows that in the case of warm cloud base and moderate updraft velocity (< 20 m s^{−  1}), active electrification occurred below the − 10 °C level before moving upward to the − 20 °C level. In contrast, when cloud base is cold and updraft velocity is intensive, the main charging region is at the − 20 °C or even higher level. In that case, the vertical extent of the main negative charge region becomes larger with the increase of cloud base temperature. Apart from the main dipolar or tripolar charge structure, some smaller charge regions with relatively high values of charge density may also appear. Frozen drops, originating mainly from supercooled raindrops, mainly get electrified through charging interactions with snow at or below the − 20 °C level. They are responsible for the negative charge region near the melting level at the initial stage of precipitation if there is a large supercooled raindrop content. Non-inductive charging during hail-snow collisions is rather weak, resulting in the charge density on hail of no more than − 0.01 nC m^− 3.     

不同水汽条件下气溶胶对雷暴云电过程影响的数值模拟研究

为全面了解水汽在气溶胶影响雷暴云电过程中的作用,本研究在已有的二维雷暴云起、放电模式基础上,通过改变相对湿度和气溶胶初始浓度(文中气溶胶浓度均指气溶胶数浓度)进行敏感性数值模拟试验.结果表明:(1)随着气溶胶浓度升高,雷暴云产生更多的小云滴,降水过程受到抑制.而当水汽含量升高时,云滴数浓度的增长速度更快,雨滴数浓度升高...     

Fine-resolution simulation of cloud-to-ground lightning and thundercloud charge transfer

2-D 12.5 m-resolution simulations of cloud-to-ground (CG) lightning discharge processes have been performed using an improved stochastic lightning model for different types of cloud charge distributions, such as dipole, tripole, bi-dipole and multi-layer charge structures produced from the numerical simulation of thundercloud electrification. The modelling produced the fine branched channel structure of CG lightning and the results illustrate the relations between CG lightning channel propagation and cloud charge distribution. The simulated features of CG lightning are associated with the observed results. The simulation studies are essential in our understanding of complex charge transfer processes caused by CG lightning discharges in thunderclouds. The induced charges of opposite polarity are deposited or embedded in the local volumes where the bidirectional leaders passed during a CG lightning discharge. Although the embedding affects charge structure only in a pair of significant positive and negative charge regions closest to the ground, the electric field strength acutely weakens and electrostatic energy in thunderclouds is significantly consumed when the discharge terminates. In addition to simulating the upward and downward breakdown of the initial leader to ground and the ensuing return stroke (RS), the simulation assumes that current continues to flow in the channel to ground and determines the upward breakdown until the end of the discharge. For the subsequent discharge sub-process, the upward leader channel tends to transfer the charges with the same polarity as the RS, while the downward leader channel favors transfer of opposite charge to ground. In the sub-processes of a few CG flash simulations, the magnitude of the opposite charges from the downward leader exceeds that of charges with the same polarity from the upward leader so that the net charges transferred to the ground have a reversed polarity to the RS. The simulation presents similar features of CG lightning as those observed in realistic bipolar CG lightning.     

2013年宁波地区一次海风锋对雷暴过程影响分析及数值模拟

利用浙江省常规气象站观测资料、地面自动站加密资料、新一代多普勒天气雷达资料、NCEP GFS分析资料以及WRF中尺度模式,对2013年7月29日发生在宁波市地区的一个局地强雷暴天气过程进行了诊断分析和数值模拟。通过对天气环流和数值模拟结果的分析发现：本次强雷暴过程发生在较稳定的大气背景下,主要影响系统是中尺度辐合线海风锋;多普勒雷达出现弱窄带回波时,对应中尺度辐合线海风锋;海风锋向内陆推进时,对应站点温度降低、湿度增大。WRF模式能较好地模拟出此次雷暴过程以及宁波地区低层海风锋环流,高空回流随时间和空间的演变特征;海风锋的锋生造成的地转强迫促使次级环流加强,在东西风辐合线西侧有垂直上升运动出现;通过与敏感试验的对比可知,海陆热力差异是影响雷暴降水强度、海风锋水平垂直环流的重要因素。     

Intracloud discharge and the correlated basic charge structure of a thunderstorm in Zhongchuan, a Chinese Inland Plateau region

The intracloud (IC) discharge is closely related to the charge structure of thunderstorms. The location, charge moment and polarity of intracloud discharges have been analyzed by using the electric field changes from a 7-site network of slow antennas synchronized by GPS with 1 μs time resolution in the area of Zhongchuan in the Chinese Inland Plateau. Ten IC flashes, from a storm on August 20, 2004, have been fitted by using the non-linear least-square solution. The results show that five IC flashes occurred between the main negative charge region and the lower positive charge region and other five between the main negative charge region and the upper positive charge region during the mature stage of the thunderstorm. The centers of discharge were 3.2–5.6 km and 6.8–7.7 km above sea level. The neutralized moments were about 4.56–61.0 C km and 1.06–15.9 C km. It suggests that the charge structure related to the lightning discharge can be represented by a tripole but with a strong positive charge region in the lower part of the thunderstorm, with the lower positive charge region taking an active role in the discharge.     

Lifetime of the thunderstorm electric energy in the global atmospheric circuit and thunderstorm energy characteristics

The lifetime of electric energy in the atmosphere is introduced and investigated as is the total electric energy of the atmosphere related to the total mean rate of electric energy dissipation. This lifetime, as determined from general estimations and convenient analytical expressions, turns out to be very small – from about 10 to about 100 s, depending on the assumptions on the control parameters of principal sources in the global electric circuit. In particular the energy lifetime is less than the relaxation time of the “global condenser” and field relaxation time near the ground surface. It is explained by the high dissipative rate of the electric energy in the atmosphere, taking into account that the regions mainly contributing to the total energy and its dissipative rate are connected to the altitudes of active parts of electrified (thunderstorm) clouds in the atmosphere with exponentially increasing conductivity.     

利用雷达回波三维拼图资料识别雷暴大风统计研究

应用雷达回波三维组网拼图数据、加密自动站和地面灾害大风资料,对2008—2012年京津冀地区20次区域性雷暴大风天气过程进行了统计。检验了基于模糊逻辑建立的利用回波强度识别大风的算法,分析了大风出现的位置。该大风识别算法确定了雷暴大风的6个雷达识别指标及其对应的权重系数和不同季节的隶属函数。检验分析块状回波、带状回波和片状回波3类大风过程的识别效果,结果表明：块状回波类大风是由孤立的强单体风暴引发的,风暴单体具有回波强、回波顶高、垂直积分液态水含量大和移动快等特点,雷暴大风多出现在风暴单体附近且二者移动路径一致;带状回波的长度远大于宽度,主要包含飑线和弓状回波,大风影响范围广且多位于带状回波的前沿一带;片状回波多指大面积层云回波中镶嵌着强回波单体块的混合回波,对应出现的雷暴大风多位于风暴单体的周边区域。3类回波识别到的可能出现大风区域与实测大风范围基本吻合,块状、带状和片状3种类型的雷暴大风命中率分别为96.2%、68.6%和45.3%,漏报率分别为3.8%、31.4%和54.7%。由于垂直积分液态水含量偏低和回波强度弱,片状雷暴大风识别漏报相对较多;空报原因除了与测站分布稀疏有很大关系外,也与识别算法本身有关。识别检验证明雷暴大风综合识别方法是合理可靠、切实可行的,可以为雷暴大风的短时临近预警业务和系统开发提供技术支撑,这一工作也为进一步预警大风出现的位置提供了基础。     

基于NCEP/GFS资料的中国东部地区雷暴预报研究

基于来自美国国家环境预测中心(NCEP)的GFS(Global Forecasting System)分析及预报场资料,将多个能够表征雷暴发生动力、热力环境的对流因子作为预报因子,通过费希尔判别准则及逐个引入因子法,建立集合多个对流参数的雷暴预报模型,从而进行较长时效(12—24 h)的区域性雷暴预报。依据临界成功指数(CSI)最高的原则,建立最优预报模型,不同地区所选用的对流参数不同,雷暴模型预报雷暴发生与否的临界值也不同,从而不仅能够得到较好的集合多个对流参数的雷暴区域性预报,还能充分考虑不同地区雷暴发生的地域性特点和气候背景。将建立的预报方法应用于2012年6和9月的两次强对流过程的预报,发现雷暴预报模型较好地预报出两次过程的雷暴落区。进一步,为了能够在强天气预报中客观有效地区分出雷暴与暴雨区,引入集合动力因子暴雨预报方法。集合动力因子暴雨预报方法在诊断和追踪强降水的发展演变中表现凸出,而集合对流参数雷暴预报方法则对包含短时强降水、冰雹、大风等在内的对流性天气有较好反映,综合两套预报方法各自的优势,建立了集成动力因子-对流参数强天气预报方法,用于降水和雷暴的预报,同时对雷暴加降水型、雷暴无降水型、降水无雷暴型等强天气进行区分预报。对中国多个典型城市的预报效果分析发现,该方法不仅能够较好地预报出较长时效(24 h)的雷暴和降水落区,对区分降水雷暴、无降水雷暴和无雷暴降水也表现出一定的能力。     

宁波地区海-陆下垫面差异对雷暴过程影响的数值模拟

利用耦合Noah陆面过程的WRF模式对2009年6月5日傍晚发生在宁波地区的一次雷暴过程进行数值模拟,通过改变下垫面覆盖类型的敏感性试验,探讨了海洋和陆地下垫面对雷暴过程的影响。结果表明,WRF模式能够较合理地模拟出雷暴的发生、发展过程。雷暴发生前期,由于海-陆强烈的热力差异,海风特征明显,海风引起的抬升运动触发了雷暴,海风形成的强辐合区对应雷暴过程累积降水量的大值区。当研究区域全部被替换成陆地后,地表的粗糙度增大,在研究区域东部由于摩擦辐合加强,产生了强烈的上升运动,多个发展旺盛的对流单体在上升运动区生成,使雷暴产生的降水区域东扩、降水量增大、雷暴维持时间延长。当研究区域所有陆地被替换成水体后,白天地表通量减小,大气边界层中湍流运动减弱,边界层高度降低,大气层结变得稳定,不利于对流发展。     

大气电场的FFT频谱分析及雷暴预报研究

采用傅里叶变换方法将时域数据转换到频域,针对首次地闪发生(简称“雷暴天气”)和首次地闪不会发生(简称“非雷暴天气”)的大气电场强度数据做了幅度谱分析.研究发现,首次地闪前0.5h的大气电场数据与非雷暴天气中任意时段0.5h的大气电场数据的幅度谱分布具有明显差异,两类天气的幅度谱分布有一定规律可循.在此基础上对样本整理分类,将两类天气的平均幅度谱视为判别标准,利用欧氏距离判别法,对63个未知天气样本进行判别分类和效果检验,结果表明,此方法可供短时临近的首次地闪预警工作中予以参考.     

云下部正电荷区与负地闪预击穿过程

三维雷电观测系统LMA(Lightning Mapping Array)是最近发展起来的基于GPS时钟同步的闪电VHF辐射源到达时间差(TOA)定位技术,能以很高的时间分辨率(50 ns)和空间定位精度(50—100 m)展现闪电放电发展过程的三维时空分布,揭示雷暴中电荷结构及其与放电过程的关系。文中利用三维雷电VHF辐射源观测资料分析了负地闪预击穿过程的时空分布特征,讨论了云下部正电荷区对负地闪发生的影响,其结果表明在首次回击之前存在长时间预击穿过程的负地闪中,预击穿过程是云中部负电荷区与下部正电荷区之间的一种云内放电过程,闪电起始于云中部负电荷区,然后向下发展传输,进入正电荷区后闪电通道在云下部正电荷区水平发展,其放电特征与反极性云闪放电一致,云内放电过程最后阶段的K型击穿激发了地闪的梯级先导,梯级先导穿过云下部正电荷区向下发展传输。云下部正电荷的存在是导致负地闪首次回击之前存在长时间云内预击穿过程的主要原因。     

积云中云滴群凝结增长的数值模拟

本文用一维非定常积云模式研究积云中云滴群的凝结增长。比较了几种盐核谱及不同湍流交换强度等情况下凝结形成的云滴谱特征。结果表明半径1.5—2.5微米的巨核在凝结过程形成大云滴中起主要作用,而较大的巨核对平衡态凝结谱影响不大,仅起到提早出现大云滴的作用。凝结核浓度过大不利于大云滴的形成,对半径 1.5—2.5微米的巨核浓度为 10~(-3)个/厘米~3比较有利。凝结平衡谱随湍流交换和夹卷作用的影响较大,在某些条件下可以模拟出双峰谱。     

冰晶核化对雷暴云微物理过程和起电影响的数值模拟研究

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