Policy options to streamline the carbon market for agricultural nitrous oxide emissions

The majority of emissions of nitrous oxide – a potent greenhouse gas (GHG) – are from agricultural sources, particularly nitrogen fertilizer applications. A growing focus on these emission sources has led to the development in the United States of GHG offset protocols that could enable payment to farmers for reducing fertilizer use or implementing other nitrogen management strategies. Despite the development of several protocols, the current regional scope is narrow, adoption by farmers is low, and policy implementation of protocols has a significant time lag. Here we utilize existing research and policy structures to propose an ‘umbrella’ approach for nitrogen management GHG emissions protocols that has the potential to streamline the policy implementation and acceptance of such protocols. We suggest that the umbrella protocol could set forth standard definitions common across multiple protocol options, and then modules could be further developed as scientific evidence advances. Modules could be developed for specific crops, regions, and practices. We identify a policy process that could facilitate this development in concert with emerging scientific research and conclude by acknowledging potential benefits and limitations of the approach.

Key policy insights

• Agricultural greenhouse gas market options are growing, but are still underutilized

• Streamlining protocol development through an umbrella process could enable quicker development of protocols across new crops, regions, and practices

• Effective protocol development must not compromise best available science and should follow a rigorous pathway to ensure appropriate implementation

     

Mitigation options for methane, nitrous oxide and nitric oxide emissions from agricultural ecosystems

1.IntroductionNitrousoxide(N,O)andmethane(CH.)arethemostimportantgreenhousegassesintheatmospherewithitscontributiontoglobalwarmingjustlowerthanCO2.Theirconcentrationsinatmospherehavebeennotedtoincreasecurrentlyattherateof0.25%yr--'andl.02%yr',respectively(IPCC,1995).Atpresent,theincreaseofNZOandCH4intheatmospherehasbeenestimatedtoaccountfor20--25%oftheglobalwarming(FAO&IAEA,1992;Bailes&Bridges,1992).NOdoesnotabsorbradiationdirectlyintheatmosphere,buttheincreasingconcentrationofNOmay…     

Methane and nitrous oxide emissions from three paddy rice based cultivation systems in Southwest China

To understand methane (CH4) and nitrous oxide (N2O) emissions from permanently flooded rice paddy fields and to develop mitigation options, a field experiment was conducted in situ for two years (from late 2002 to early 2005) in three rice-based cultivation systems, which are a permanently flooded rice field cultivated with a single time and followed by a non-rice season (PF), a rice-wheat rotation system (RW) and a rice-rapeseed rotation system (RR) in a hilly area in Southwest China. The results showed that the total CH4 emissions from PF were 646.3±52.1 and 215.0±45.4 kg CH4 hm-2 during the rice-growing period and non-rice period, respectively. Both values were much lower than many previous reports from similar regions in Southwest China. The CH4 emissions in the rice-growing season were more intensive in PF, as compared to RW and RR. Only 33% of the total annual CH4 emission in PF occurred in the non-rice season, though the duration of this season is two times longer than the rice season. The annual mean N2O flux in PF was 4.5±0.6 kg N2O hm-2 yr-1. The N2O emission in the rice-growing season was also more intensive than in the non-rice season, with only 16% of the total annual emission occurring in the non-rice season. The amounts of N2O emission in PF were ignorable compared to the CH4 emission in terms of the global warming potential (GWP). Changing PF to RW or RR not only eliminated CH4 emissions in the non-rice season, but also substantially reduced the CH4 emission during the following rice-growing period (ca. 58%, P<0.05). However, this change in cultivation system substantially increased N2O emissions, especially in the non-rice season, by a factor of 3.7 to 4.5. On the 100-year horizon, the integrated GWP of total annual CH4 and N2O emissions satisfies PF>>RR≈RW. The GWP of PF is higher than that of RW and RR by a factor of 2.6 and 2.7, respectively. Of the total GWP of CH4 and N2O emissions, CH4 emission contributed to 93%, 65% and 59% in PF, RW and RR, respectively. These results suggest that changing PF to RW and RR can substantially reduce not only CH4 emission but also the total GWP of the CH4 and N2O emissions.     

中国电力行业碳排放达峰及减排潜力分析

推动电力行业低碳发展是中国有效控制CO₂排放和推动尽早达峰的重要抓手。在分别利用学习曲线工具和自下而上技术核算方式分析风电、光伏两类主要的可再生电力和其他各类电源发展趋势的基础上,综合评估了既有政策和强化政策条件下2035年前中国电力行业能源活动碳排放变化趋势。研究发现,既有政策情景下电力行业碳排放在2030年左右达到峰值,届时非化石能源在发电量中比重为44%,而通过强化推动能源绿色低碳发展的相关政策,2025年前即可达到电力行业碳排放峰值,2030年非化石电力在发电量中比重可以提升至51%,其中可再生电力加速发展将分别贡献2025、2030和2035年当年减排量（相对于既有政策情景）的45%、54%和62%。尽管从保障电力稳定安全供应角度,煤电装机仍有一定增长空间,但考虑到电力行业绿色低碳和可持续发展的长期需求,仍应加强对煤电装机的有效控制,“十四五”期间努力将煤电装机控制在11亿kW左右的水平。     

Developed and developing world contributions to climate system change based on carbon dioxide,methane and nitrous oxide emissions

One of the key issues in international climate negotiations is the formulation of targets for emissions reduction for all countries based on the principle of "common but differentiated responsibilities". This formulation depends primarily on the quantitative attribution of the responsibilities of developed and developing countries for historical climate change. Using the Commuity Earth System Model(CESM), we estimate the responsibilities of developed countries and developing countries for climatic change from 1850 to 2005 using their carbon dioxide, methane and nitrous oxide emissions. The results indicate that developed countries contribute approximately 53%–61%, and developing countries approximately 39%–47%, to the increase in global air temperature, upper oceanic warming, sea-ice reduction in the NH, and permafrost degradation. In addition, the spatial heterogeneity of these changes from 1850 to 2005 is primarily attributed to the emissions of greenhouse gases(GHGs)in developed countries. Although uncertainties remain in the climate model and the external forcings used, GHG emissions in developed countries are the major contributor to the observed climate system changes in the 20 th century.     

Dynamics of energy sector and GHG emissions in Saudi Arabia

The energy sector is the main contributor to GHG emissions in Saudi Arabia. The tremendous growth of GHG emissions poses serious challenges for the Kingdom in terms of their reduction targets, and also the mitigation of the associated climate changes. The rising trend of population and urbanization affects the energy demand, which results in a faster rate of increase in GHG emissions. The major energy sector sources that contribute to GHG emissions include the electricity generation, road transport, desalination plants, petroleum refining, petrochemical, cement, iron and steel, and fertilizer industries. In recent years, the energy sector has become the major source, accounting for more than 90% of national CO₂ emissions. Although a substantial amount of research has been conducted on renewable energy resources, a sustainable shift from petroleum resources is yet to be achieved. Public awareness, access to energy-efficient technology, and the development and implementation of a legislative framework, energy pricing policies, and renewable and alternative energy policies are not mature enough to ensure a significant reduction in GHG emissions from the energy sector. An innovative and integrated solution that best serves the Kingdom's long-term needs and exploits potential indigenous, renewable, and alternative energy resources while maintaining its sustainable development stride is essential.

Policy relevance

The main contributor to GHG emissions in Saudi Arabia is the energy sector that accounts for more than 90% of the national CO₂ emissions. Tremendous growth of GHG emissions poses serious challenges for the Kingdom in their reduction and mitigating the associated climate changes. This study examines the changing patterns of different activities associated with energy sector, the pertinent challenges, and the opportunities that promise reduction of GHG emissions while providing national energy and economic security. The importance of achieving timely, sustained, and increasing reductions in GHG emissions means that a combination of policies may be needed. This study points to the long-term importance of making near- and medium-term policy choices on a well-informed, strategic basis. This analytical paper is expected to provide useful information to the national policy makers and other decision makers. It may also contribute to the GHG emission inventories and the climate change negotiations.     

Methane emission from the oligotrophic bog massif in the Northwestern Russia

Results of measuring methane emissions from the Lammin-Suo oligotrophic bog massif are considered. It is shown that emission intensity depends on the methane transport from the active layer of the peat bed. The highest emission intensity is observed in the sedge-sphagnum microlandscape and over swampy hollows of the hummock-ridge complex. It is found that the methane flux intensity approaches zero when the wetland level drops by 30–35 cm from the bog surface. Spatial methane emission variability is estimated within dominating bog landscapes. The methane emission reaches its maximum values (207%) in microlandscapes with oriented microrelief (hummock-ridge complex); in the central bog (sphagnum-suffrutescent-cottongrass landscape afforested with pine), it reaches its lowest level (76%). A model of methane emissions from bogs is developed. The model has been verified from the observational data. The comparison of model calculations with experimental data is indicative of their good agreement, which makes it possible to use the model in different calculations and assessments of the influence of natural factors on the methane emission intensity.     

Variations of atmospheric nitrous oxide concentration in the northern and western Pacific

Atmospheric N₂O concentration was observed in the Pacific for the period 1991–2006, using commercial container ships sailing between Japan and North America and between Japan and Australia or New Zealand. The N₂O concentration showed a secular increase and interannual variations at all sampling locations, but a seasonal cycle was detectable only at northern high latitudes. The annual mean N₂O concentration showed little longitudinal variations (within ± 0.3 ppb) in the northern Pacific, but showed a clear north-south gradient of about 0.8 ppb, with higher values in the Northern Hemisphere. The annual mean N₂O was also characterized by especially high values at 30°N due to strong local N₂O emissions and by a steep latitudinal decrease from the equator to 20°S due to the suppression of interhemispheric exchange of air by the South Pacific Convergence Zone. The N₂O growth rate showed an interannual variation with a period of about 3 yr (high-values in 1999 and 2000), with a delayed eastward and poleward phase propagation in the northern and western Pacific, respectively. The interannual variations of the N₂O growth rate and soil water showed a good correlation, suggesting that the N₂O emission from soils have an important causative role in the atmospheric N₂O variation.     

Carbon dioxide, methane, and nitrous oxide emissions from a rice-wheat rotation as affected by crop residue incorporation and temperature

Field measurements were made from June 2001 to May 2002 to evaluate the effect of crop residue application and temperature on CO2, CH4, and N2O emissions within an entire rice-wheat rotation season.Rapeseed cake and wheat straw were incorporated into the soil at a rate of 2.25 t hm-2 when the rice crop was transplanted in June 2001. Compared with the control, the incorporation of rapeseed cake enhanced the emissions of CO2, CH4, and N2O in the rice-growing season by 12.3%, 252.3%, and 17.5%,respectively, while no further effect was held on the emissions of CO2 and N2O in the following wheatgrowing season. The incorporation of wheat straw enhanced the emissions of CO2 and CH4 by 7.1%and 249.6%, respectively, but reduced the N2O emission by 18.8% in the rice-growing season. Significant reductions of 17.8% for the CO2 and of 12.9% for the N2O emission were observed in the following wheatgrowing season. A positive correlation existed between the emissions of N2O and CO2 (R2 = 0.445, n =73, p ＜ 0.001) from the rice-growing season when N2O was emitted. A trade-off relationship between the emissions of CH4 and N2O was found in the rice-growing season. The CH4 emission was significantly correlated with the CO2 emission for the period from rice transplantation to field drainage, but not for the entire rice-growing season. In addition, air temperature was found to regulate the CO2 emissions from the non-waterlogged period over the entire rice-wheat rotation season and the N2O emissions from the nonwaterlogged period of the rice-growing season, which can be quantitatively described by an exponential function. The temperature coefficient (Q10) was then evaluated to be 2.3±0.2 for the CO2 emission and 3.9±0.4 for the N2O emission, respectively.     

Possible forerunners of droughts in agricultural areas of Russia

Considered is the regional index of anticyclonic circulation IpH taking account of the percentage of the area occupied by the significant positive anomalies of the geopotential at the level of 500 hPa for the main agricultural areas of Russia. Analyzed are the variations of the index in the 20th and 21st centuries using the NCEP/NCAR reanalysis data and the outputs of model experiments with the ECHAM5 climate model (Germany). Discussed is the possibility of revealing the drought forerunners using the combination of indices of anticyclonic circulation, quasi-biennial cyclicity in the wintertime equatorial stratosphere, and teleconnections.     

EU emissions trading and the cement sector: a spatial competition analysis

An oligopoly competition model is described and used to illustrate the potential effect of EU emissions trading and transport issues on the production decisions and profitability of cement producers in a typical western European country market. The role of geography is introduced from three viewpoints: the existence of regional markets, the fact that EU producers may operate multiple plants across these regions, and the possibility of production capacity constraints. A typical EU state is divided into a coastal region which is initially exposed to international competition, and an inland region which is initially protected. Assuming pure auctioning of EU Allowances and a range of CO₂ prices up to €50/t, our model predicts a large increase of imports into the coastal region. Consequences for the inland producers include reduced attractiveness of the coastal market, as well as increased competition from coastal producers and from non-EU imports. The model includes a number of simplifications and therefore does not claim to offer definitive predictions, but our results do suggest that an increase in non-EU imports could feasibly offset more than 70% of the decrease in EU cement sector emissions. The likely impact on producer profits is considered for each region, and the advantages and disadvantages of potential mitigating policy measures are reviewed for either the EU Allowance allocation process or border adjustments on cement products.     

Studies of Nitrous Oxide Emission from Farmlands in North China

Measurements of nitrous oxide emission from agricultural lands were conducted. The results show that nitrous oxide fluxes on several soils are at the range of 2-60 μg . N / m2 h. Factors influencing the production rates of nitrous oxide from the soils, such as soil temperature, soil moisture and fertilization, are discussed. The calculated amount of nitrous oxide emission from China farmlands is 9.8 × 107 Kg . N per year, which accounts for about 10% of the total source strength in China areas.     

European sources of halocarbons and nitrous oxide: Update 1986

Semi-continuous measurements of CFCl₃, CF₂Cl₂, CCl₄, CH₃CCl₃ and N₂O were made at Adrigole, Ireland as part of the Atmospheric Lifetime Experiment (ALE). Clean, baseline air from the Atlantic Ocean was measured approximately 70% of the time; pollution events from Europe, for the remainder. The two final years of ALE data from Adrogole give a five-year record from July 1978 to June 1983. This paper extends previous work on the relative enhancements of trace gases during pollution episodes and presents (1) unambiguous identification of elevated levels of N₂O concurrent with halocarbon pollution events, (2) detection of trends in emission of CH₃CCl₃, (3) discovery of seasonal variations in emission of CF₂Cl₂, CCl₄ and CH₃CCl₃, (4) characterization of typical summer and winter pollution episodes, and (5) identification of weather patterns over Europe that are associated with high concentrations of CFCs at Adrigole. Some of these results assume that CFCl₃ represents a uniform, well buffered source from the continent. The latter two results are particularly useful in the testing and calibration of three-dimensional chemical transport models. Observed enhancements are marginally consistent with estimates of halocarbon use by the chemical industry. The source of nitrous oxide correlated with halocarbons is 0.8 Tg(N)/yr from Europe alone and represents approximately 10% of the global stratospheric loss.     

交通运输温室气体核算边界和测算方法研究

The transport sector is one of the major sources of greenhouse gas emissions. The proposal of “dual-carbon” targets puts forward higher requirements for carbon emission reduction in the transport sector. The statistical data base for energy consumption statistics and greenhouse gas emission measurement in China’s transport sector is relatively weak. There is no precise data on greenhouse gas emission of transport sector. The boundary, scope, and methodology of greenhouse gas emission accounting need to be further clarified. At present, the accounting method for greenhouse gases has not been unified in the transport sector at the national level. Drawing on the experience and practice of domestic and overseas greenhouse gas emissions accounting boundaries and calculating methods for the transport sector, this paper puts forward the greenhouse gas emissions accounting methods applicable to different modes of transportation in China. Aiming at the existing problems in the transport greenhouse gas accounting, corresponding policy recommendations in establishing energy consumption and emissions accounting method system, setting up the transport energy consumption and carbon emissions data sharing mechanism, strengthening transportation energy consumption emissions accounting methods training, improving data quality management are proposed in this study, to provide a reference for the continuous development of greenhouse gas emissions accounting in China’s transport sector. © 2023 BULLETIN OF THE CHINESE CERAMIC SOCIETY. All rights reserved.     

Options to overcome the barriers to pricing European agricultural emissions

Although agriculture could contribute substantially to European emission reductions, its mitigation potential lies untapped and dormant. Market-based instruments could be pivotal in incentivizing cost-effective abatement. However, sector specificities in transaction costs, leakage risks and distributional impacts impede its implementation. The significance of such barriers critically hinges on the dimensions of policy design. This article synthesizes the work on emissions pricing in agriculture together with the literature on the design of market-based instruments. To structure the discussion, an options space is suggested to map policy options, focusing on three key dimensions of policy design. More specifically, it examines the role of policy coverage, instruments and transfers to farmers in overcoming the barriers. First, the results show that a significant proportion of agricultural emissions and mitigation potential could be covered by a policy targeting large farms and few emission sources, thereby reducing transaction costs. Second, whether an instrument is voluntary or mandatory influences distributional outcomes and leakage. Voluntary instruments can mitigate distributional concerns and leakage risks but can lead to subsidy lock-in and carbon price distortion. Third, the impact on transfers resulting from the interaction of the Common Agricultural Policy (CAP) with emissions pricing will play a key role in shaping political feasibility and has so far been underappreciated.

POLICY RELEVANCE

Following the 2015 Paris Agreement, European climate policy is at a crossroads. Achieving cost-effectively the 2030 and 2050 European targets requires all sectors to reduce their emissions. Yet, the cornerstone of European climate policy, the European Union Emissions Trading System (EU ETS), covers only about half of European emissions. Major sectors have been so far largely exempted from carbon pricing, in particular transport and agriculture. While transport has been increasingly under the spotlight as a possible candidate for an EU ETS sectoral expansion, policy discussions on pricing agricultural emissions have been virtually absent. This article attempts to fill this gap by investigating options for market-based instruments to reduce agricultural emissions while taking barriers to implementation into account.     

Emission of nitrous oxide from temperate forest soils into the atmosphere

N₂O emission rates were measured during a 13-month period from July 1981 till August 1982 with a frequency of once every two weeks at six different forest sites in the vicinity of Mainz, Germany. The sites were selected on the basis of soil types typical for many of the Central European forest ecosystems. The individual N₂O emission rates showed a high degree of temporal and spatial variabilities which, however, were not significantly correlated to variabilities in soil moisture content or soil temperatures. However, the N₂O emission rates followed a general seasonal trend with relatively high values during spring and fall. These maxima coincided with relatively high soil moisture contents, but may also have been influenced by the leaf fall in autumn. In addition, there was a brief episode of relatively high N₂O emission rates immediately after thawing of the winter snow. The individual N₂O emission rates measured during the whole season ranged between 1 and 92 g N₂O-N m^–2 h^–1. The average values were in the range of 3–11 g N₂O-N m^–2 h^–1 and those with a 50% probability were in the range of 2–8 g N₂O-N m^–2 h^–1. The total source strength of temperate forest soils for atmospheric N₂O may be in the range of 0.7–1.5 Tg N yr^–1.     

Near-source particulate emissions and plume dynamics from agricultural field operations

Particulate matter emissions generated by agricultural field preparation and harvesting operations were measured remotely via aerosol lidar and sampled simultaneously with a variety of aerosol point samplers in order to quantify dust plume space and time dynamics and particulate mass and number concentrations. Data for two cotton operations (disking, harvesting) in a flood-irrigated field in New Mexico are presented. Dust plume dynamics varied with boundary layer meteorological conditions, especially atmospheric stability, with plume maximum height significantly lower under stable conditions. Plume tracking indicated little change in plume area with height under unstable conditions and plume movement depended on wind speed and direction. Particle mass distributions indicate approximately 50% of the measured PM₁₀ mass was PM_2.5, significantly higher than previously reported values, possibly due to the near-source nature of the samples collected here. Variability in plume movement matched the variability in short-term wind fluctuations and this variability helps explain why models that utilize long-term averages perform poorly when trying to capture plume dynamics for nonsteady sources such as tractor operations.     

Assessment of atmospheric emissions of pollutants and greenhouse gases from the civil aviation of Russia

Presented are the results of computation of emissions of pollutants and greenhouse gases from civil aircrafts in the first decade of the 21st century (from 2000 to 2012). It is revealed that in 2012 the emissions of pollutants to the atmospheric surface layer were reduced by 22.0–61.4% as compared with 2000, and those of greenhouse gases, by 30.6–62.3%. Environmental conditions in the area of large airports can remain rather strained. It is demonstrated that in 2012 the emissions of the majority of pollutants and greenhouse gases to the upper tropospheric layer increased by 41.9–48.5 and 43.7%, respectively, as compared with 2000. The inflow of gaseous compounds of different types of activity to the atmosphere can increase the total negative effect.     

Policies for reducing agricultural sector vulnerability to climate change in Mali

Abstract

The Mali agricultural sector and the country's food security are potentially vulnerable to climate change. Policies may be able to mitigate some of the climate change vulnerability. This article investigates several policy changes that may reduce vulnerability, including climate-specific and other policies. The policy set includes migration of cropping patterns, development of high-temperature-resistant cultivars, reduction in soil productivity loss, cropland expansion, adoption of improved cultivars, and changes in trade patterns. When all policies are considered together, results under climate change show an annual gain of $252 million in economic benefits as opposed to a $161 million loss without policy adjustment. Simultaneously, undernourishment is reduced to 17% of the Malian population as compared with 64% without policy adjustment. We also find tradeoffs in cases between economic benefits and undernourishment. Policies are also studied individually and collectively. Overall, the results indicate that policy can play an important role in reducing climate change vulnerability in Mali.