The influence of medium-range transport on O3 levels at a rural site in Israel

Simultaneous ozone measurements were made at a rural site, 25 km SSW of the city of Jerusalem, and in the center of the city during a period of 28 months. The ozone data were supplemented by SO₂, NO/NO _x ,and meteorological measurements at both sites. Elevated ozone concentrations were recorded at the rural site, mostly during the spring months (May and June) during which the monthly averages and the monthly averages of the daily 30 min maximum levels equalled those measured in the city. During the summer months, both average and peak levels were lower at the rural site by 20 and 35 ppb. The increased ozone levels at the rural site were accompanied by a parallel increase of SO₂ and NO _x ,suggesting hat the excess ozone at the rural site is a result of a transformation during transport of air pollutants from coastal sources.     

Studies of the Marine Boundary Layer at Tarapur

Simultaneous observations were made of the Marine Boundary Layer at Tarapur, a site near Bombay on the sea coast, by acoustic sounder and instrumented tower. The meteorological tower was used to sense wind and temperature at various levels up to a height of 120 m while the acoustic sounder was used to examine the thermal structure of the boundary layer up to a height of 700 m. Data recorded for the year 1982 have been analysed.Analysis of the data shows that while the normal structures of thermal echoes and shear echoes represent the mixing depth of the atmospheric boundary layer, the often observed elevated layers are due to sea breeze reversals with their base giving a measure of the depth of the sea-breeze circulation during the day. A sea breeze has been detected during both spring (March to May) and autumn (October to December) months. The onset times are around 1000 hr during spring months and around noon during the autumn period, the height of development being respectively up to 500 and 350 m. The capability of the sodar to detect the base and thickness of the sea breeze, is clearly revealed.     

Ozone Concentrations in Rural Regions of the Yangtze Delta in China

Elevated concentrations of ozone have been observed at six non-urban, surface monitoring sites in the Yangtze Delta of China during a 16-month field experiment carried out in 1999 and 2000 as part of the joint Chinese-American China-MAP Project (the Yangtze Delta of china as an Evolving Metro-Agro-Plex). The average daytime (0900–1600 h) ozone levels for the monitoring period at sites ranged from 35 to 47 ppbv (parts per billion by volume) and the mean ozone levels from 26 to 35 ppbv. Observed data show seasonal variation obviously, with highest mixing ratios of ozone in May. Average daytime ozone levels in May at sites were between 60 and 79 ppbv. High ozone concentrations were most prevalent during the late spring. Frequency counts of hourly mean ozone concentration over 60 ppbv and 40 ppbv appeared peak values of 22–39% and 42–74% in May at sites. Even higher daytime ozone levels were observed during two regional episodes, in which average daytime (0900–1600 h) ozone concentrations during 10 May and 23 May 2000 were 68 to 81 ppbv, during Oct. 18 and Oct. 28, 1999 were 59 to 67 ppbv at sites. Peak value of ozone mixing ratio appearing in late spring, instead of in summer, was attributed to summer monsoon. Backward trajectories showed that ozone episodes associated with meteorological conditions. Also many high ozone levels associated with high CO levels and high CO to NO _x ratios, which suggests a contribution from sources of emission involving incomplete combustion.     

Boundary-layer ozone depletion as seen in the Norwegian Arctic in spring

Several years of measurements of ozone, hydrocarbons, sulphate and meteorological parameters from Spitsbergen in the Norwegian Arctic are presented. Most of the measurements were taken on the Zeppelin Mountain at an altitude of 474 m a.s.l. The focus is the episodes of ozone depletion in the lower troposphere in spring, which are studied in a climatological way. Episodes of very low ozone concentrations are a common feature on the Zeppelin Mountain in spring. The low ozone episodes were observed from late March to the beginning of June. When the effect of transport direction was subtracted, the frequenty of the low ozone episodes was found to peak in the beginning of May, possibly reflecting the seasonal cycle in the actual depletion process. Analyses based on trajectory calculations show that most of the episodes occurred when the air masses were transported from W-N. Ozone soundings show that the ozone depletion may extend from the surface and up to 3–4 km altitude. The episodes were associated with a cold boundary layer beneath a thermally stable layer, suppressing mixing with the free troposphere. The concentration of several individual hydrocarbons was much lower during episodes of low ozone than for the average conditions. The change in concentration ratio between the hydrocarbons was in qualitative agreement with oxidation of hydrocarbons by Br and Cl atoms rather than by OH radicals.     

Photochemical characteristics of high and low ozone episodes observed in the Taehwa Forest observatory (TFO) in June 2011 near Seoul South Korea

We present a comprehensive discussion on what cause high ozone episodes at a suburban photochemical observation site of the Seoul Metropolitan Area (population ～23 million). The observational site, Taehwa Research Forest (TRF), is situated ～30 km from the center of Seoul. In June 2011, we observed two very distinctive ozone periods-high ozone (peak up to 120 ppbv) and low ozone (peak up to 60 ppbv) in the mid and early month, respectively. The trace gas measurement dataset, especially CO and NO _X clearly indicate that less anthropogenic influences during the high ozone period. Volatile organic compound (VOC) measurement results show that at the observational site, biogenic VOCs (mostly isoprene) contribute most of chemical reactivity towards OH, although toluene from anthropogenic activities was observed in higher concentrations. Back-trajectory analysis indicates that air-masses from the forest part of Korea Peninsula were dominant influences during the high ozone episode event. On the other hand, Aged air masses from China were the dominant influence during the low ozone episode event. Model calculations conducted using the University of Washington Chemical Mechanism (UWCM) box model, also consistently show that BVOC, especially isoprene photochemistry, can be the significantly contribution to local ozone formation in the given photochemical environments of TRF. These research results strongly suggest that ozone control strategy in the Eastern Asian megacities, mostly situated in surrounding forest areas should be based on the comprehensive scientific understanding in BVOC photochemistry and interplays between anthropogenic and biogenic interactions.     

Surface Trace Gases at a Rural Site between the Megacities of Beijing and Tianjin

The North China Plain （NCP） has recently faced serious air quality problems as a result of enhanced gas pollutant emissions due to the process of urbanization and rapid economic growth. To explore regional air pollu- tion in the NCP, measurements of surface ozone （O3）, nitrogen oxides （NOx）, and sulfur dioxide （SO2） were car- ried out from May to November 2013 at a rural site （Xianghe） between the twin megacities of Beijing and Tianjin. The highest hourly ozone average was close to 240 ppbv in May, followed by around 160 ppbv in June and July. High ozone episodes were more notable than in 2005 and were mainly associated with air parcels from the city cluster in the hinterland of the polluted NCP to the southwest of the site. For NOx, an important ozone precur- sor, the concentrations ranged from several ppbv to nearly 180 ppbv in the summer and over 400 ppbv in the fall. The occurrence of high NOx concentrations under calm condi- tions indicated that local emissions were dominant in Xianghe. The double-peak diurnal pattern found in NOx concentrations and NO/NOx ratios was probably shaped by local emissions, photochemical removal, and dilution re- sulting from diurnal variations of surface wind speed and the boundary layer height. A pronounced SO2 daytime peak was noted and attributed to downward mixing from an SO2-rich layer above, while the SO2-polluted air mass transported from possible emission sources, which differed between the non-heating （September and October） and heating （November） periods, was thought to be responsible for night-time high concentrations.     

Observational study of surface ozone at an urban site in East China

In this study, we present the observational data of near surface ozone and some meteorological parameters during 2004, at an urban site (36°42′ N, 117°08′ E, 34.5 m a.s.l.) of Jinan, China. Hourly ozone concentrations exceeding the standard value of China, 100 ppbv, were observed for 65 h (in 23 days) from April to October, and values exceeding US NAAQS (National Ambient Air Quality Standard) for 1 h ozone, 120 ppbv, were observed for 15 h (in 7 days) from late May to early July. Ozone formation presented the phenomenon of “weekend effect”, especially in summer. Monthly variation of ozone coincided with temperature except for July and August. The low ozone levels in July and August may be due to the short sunshine duration and much rainfall during this period. Among these meteorological parameters, daily averaged ozone shows a significant correlation with temperature (r = 0.66) in the year and with relative humidity (r = − 0.75) in summer. Throughout the year, high ozone concentrations were mainly associated with the wind from 180 to 247.5°, while high ozone concentration seemed to have no obvious correlation with a given wind direction in summer. An anomalous nocturnal high ozone episode during 23–25 May 2004 was investigated. Growth fractions of ozone during the nighttime episode were 62.2% and 71.1% for 23 and 24 May, respectively. Synoptic analysis shows that favorable synoptic condition had presumably elevated the background ozone level in this region. Backward trajectory analysis shows that the increase of ozone concentration and the relatively constant high ozone concentrations during the night of May 23 might originate from the transport of ozone rich air mass above boundary layer. Transport of ozone from Yangtze Delta and East Central China might be a significant process for the high ozone level during night May 24 at Jinan.     

杭州市区大气臭氧浓度变化及气象要素影响

利用2005-2007年杭州市区大气O₃连续监测资料, 分析了O₃浓度变化特征, 在此基础上结合气象观测资料, 分析了大气O₃与天气系统间的关系, 建立了O₃与气象要素间的多元回归方程。结果表明: 2007年O₃平均浓度和最大小时浓度分别为44 μg.m-3和348 μg.m-3, 比上一年增加20%左右, 超标现象也越来越严重; O₃浓度有明显的季节变化, 夏季高、冬季低; 大气O₃浓度超标主要出现在高压后部和高压控制等天气类型。在紫外线强度较强时O₃浓度也高, 二者呈显著正相关; 对O₃与各种气象因子进行多元回归分析表明: O₃主要受到温度、相对湿度、日照等因素影响。     

The Role of In Situ Photochemistry in the Control of Ozone during Spring at the Jungfraujoch (3,580 m asl) – Comparison of Model Results with Measurements

A photochemical box model has been used to model themeasured diurnal ozone cycle in spring at Jungfraujochin the Swiss Alps. The comparison of the modelleddiurnal ozone cycle with the mean measured diurnalozone cycle in spring, over the period 1988–1996,shows a good agreement both with regard to the shapeand amplitude. Ozone concentrations increase duringthe daytime and reach a maximum at about 16:00–17:00(GMT) in both the modelled and the mean observed ozonecycle, indicative of net ozone production during thedaytime at Jungfraujoch in spring. The agreement isbetter when the modelled ozone cycle is compared withthe mean measured diurnal cycle (1988–1996) filteredfor north-westerly winds >5 m/s (representative ofregional background conditions at Jungfraujoch). Inaddition to ozone, the modelled diurnal cycle of[HO₂] + [CH₃O₂] also shows rather goodagreement with the mean diurnal cycle of the peroxyradicals measured during FREETEX '96, a FREETropopsheric Experiment at Jungfraujoch in April/May1996. Furthermore, this mean diurnal cycle of the sumof the peroxy radicals measured during FREETEX '96 isused to calculate, using steady-state expressions, therespective diurnal cycle of the OH radical. Thecomparison of the OH diurnal cycle, calculated fromthe peroxy radical measurements during FREETEX '96,with the modelled one, reveals also good agreement.The net ozone production rate during the day-time is0.27 ppbv h^-1 from the model, and 0.13 ppbvh^-1 from the observations during FREETEX '96. Theobservations and model results both suggest that thediurnal ozone variation in spring at Jungfraujoch isprimarily of photochemical origin. Furthermore, theobserved and modelled positive net ozone productionrates imply that tropospheric in situphotochemistry contributes significantly to theobserved high spring ozone values in the observedbroad spring-summer ozone maximum at Jungfraujoch.     

春秋季节侧柏-山毛桃群落演替初期的小气候特征

开展森林小气候研究,对于协调生物与环境的关系、保护生物多样性以及实现森林的可持续高效管理,都是十分重要的。选择5月和10月典型的晴朗无风天气条件,以侧柏纯林为对照,研究了郁闭度为0.25、0.54和0.87的侧柏-山毛桃群落演替初期小气候特征。结果表明,侧柏-山毛桃混交林对春季和秋季林内空气温度的早间增温效应和午间降温效应,随着郁闭度增加而增大。春季的高温峰值出现在15时,晚于秋季的高温峰值13时。春季和秋季林内10 cm处地温日间呈持续增加趋势,春季以郁闭度为0.25的B点为最高,秋季侧柏纯林在12时前为最低,14时后为最高。春季林内空气相对湿度从07时到11时呈快速降低的趋势,然后逐渐缓慢回升;而秋季林内的相对湿度,随着郁闭度的增加而增大,但日间变化幅度比较小。无论春季还是秋季,侧柏和山毛桃的叶片温度日间变化均呈先升高后缓慢降低的趋势。春季郁闭度对侧柏和山毛桃的叶片温度影响不显著,但秋季11-15时,随着郁闭度的增加,叶片温度有降低的趋势。在太行山区,以山毛桃为保护树种,快速提高侧柏-山毛桃混交林的郁闭度,对有效地改善林内小气候,促进森林更新和管理都是十分重要的。     

CI指数在大兴安岭地区春季防火服务中的应用

用综合气象干旱指数(CI),结合1980—1999年林火资料,选取上年夏秋季、3月及前20天累计干旱指数作为CI林火因子,分别代表长期、中期和近期的气象干旱情况,并依据CI林火因子计算出CI林火指数(Hc)进行林火预警服务。经过研究得出如下结论:①各月相比,6月的林火因子最小,5月除上年夏秋季累计干旱指数小于4月外,其他因子均大于4月和6月累计干旱指数,说明5月最易着火,而6月出现火灾时比4月需要更加干旱的气象条件。②4月和6月有89%林火个例的Hc1,5月有84%的林火个例达到这个标准;当Hc≥2时,有76%的年份在10天内发生林火,平均每年发生4次,而Hc2时只有45%的年份发生林火,平均每年发生2.3次。说明Hc越大,发生林火的可能性越大。在春季森林火险预警服务中,可定义Hc≥2为高火险,1≤Hc2为中火险,Hc1为低火险。     

High-Latitude Springtime Photochemistry. Part Ii: Sensitivity Studies of Ozone Production

A seven-year record of surface ozone measurements from Denali NationalPark, Alaska shows a persistent spring maximum. These data, combined withmeasurements of NO_x, hydrocarbons, O₃, and PANfrom a continental site in Alaska during the spring of 1995 are used as thebasis for a sensitivity study to explore tropospheric photochemistry in thisregion. Because of the relatively high concentrations of NO_x(mean of 116, median of 91 pptv), the net tendency was for photochemicalozone production. The range of net O₃ production for averageconditions measured at this site during spring is between 0.96–3.9ppbv/day depending on the assumptions used; in any case, this productionmust contribute to the observed springtime maximum in O₃.Model calculations showed that of the anthropogenic ozone precursors, onlyNO_x had a strong effect on the rate of ozone production; themeasured concentrations of anthropogenic hydrocarbons did not significantlyaffect the ozone budget. Naturally produced biogenic hydrocarbons, such asisoprene, may also have a significant effect on ozone production, even atconcentrations of a few 10's of pptv. An observed temperature-isoprenerelationship from a boreal site in Canada indicates that isoprene may bepresent during the Alaskan spring. Measurements of isoprene taken duringthe spring of 1996 suggest that reactive biogenic hydrocarbon emissionsbegin before the emergence of leaves on deciduous trees and that theconcentrations were sufficient to accelerate ozone production.     

广汉机场春季地面风的变化特征及其对飞行训练的影响

利用广汉机场2010~2014年遥测地面风场资料,分析了春季地面风的年变化、月变化以及日变化特征,讨论了地面风对飞行训练的影响。结果表明:广汉机场春季盛行偏北风,此外主要还受到北西北、北东北风的影响,飞行训练易遭遇左侧风;4~5m/s以及6m/s以上的地面风日数年变化不大,但春季最大风速的年变化差异较大;3~5月月平均地面风速呈递增特征,从3月到5月主导风向由北风顺时针变化为东北风,东东南、东南、南东南风频率逐渐增加,左侧风以及逆风影响增大。地面风速的日变化呈现出“一峰一谷”的大陆型变化特征,即白天风速大,夜间风速小,午后风速最大,4~5m/s的风受日变化影响大,6m/s以上的风主要受天气系统的影响。      

Temperature stratification and altitude ozone variability in the low troposphere from acoustic and balloon sounding

Results of simultaneous balloon and acoustic sounding in the lower troposphere (in the surface layer up to 800 m) carried out in Velikie Luki in May–June 2002 jointly by the Moscow State University (MSU) and Central Aerological Observatory (CAO) are discussed. During the experiment, the tethered (captive) balloon for measuring air temperature and ozone partial pressure was ascended and descended 15 times. Simultaneously, gradient measurements were performed at a 4-m tower. During the intervals between ascents, the temperature stratification was determined by using the Ekho-1 sodar data. A dominating influence of temperature stratification and of some weather events on the ozone distribution with altitude is shown. In case of unstable stratification, its partial pressure is almost unchanged within the entire lower troposphere; in case of surface inversion, the ozone decrease is observed near the surface. In case of elevated inversion the ozone partial pressure is almost the same both below inversion and above it; in the layer of the inversion itself, it increases spasmodically with the altitude. Synoptic conditions largely influence the stratification regime: under conditions of the Arctic air mass, the thermal convection is observed more often and surface inversions are observed more rarely than when the local mass dominates. Artificial dynamic mixing can lead to the surface inversion dissipation in several minutes.     

Periodic variability of surface ozone concentration over western and central Europe from observational data

Characteristics of periodic variability of surface ozone concentration at 98 western and central European stations participating in the EMEP program for at least 7 (up to 14) years are determined. Daily and hourly model concentrations of surface ozone for each station are given in an analytical form that presents a sum of a constant constituent and basic harmonics that determine ozone concentration variability throughout a year and a day. A 12-month harmonic, whose maximum is observed in the spring period (in Northern Europe it is observed 1 to 2 months earlier than in Southern Europe) dominates in the energy spectrum of seasonal variability of daily mean ozone concentration at most stations. The energy part of higher (6-and 4-month) harmonics is the largest at the stations close to the sea and ocean coasts. Higher harmonics largely influence the time of the ozone extremum formation, shifting it towards the summer, or even forming a second (summer) maximum, whose magnitude at a number of stations (in Italy, Hungary, in the south of Germany, and in some others) exceeds the spring maximum. A 24-hour harmonic dominates in the energy spectrum of daily ozone variability. The maps of a “normal” distribution of surface ozone fields and their standard deviations for different seasons and time of the day have been compiled based on the model characteristics. The “norms” derived can be used to detect anomalies in the temporal trend of the surface ozone and to validate its climate changes.     

南亚高压与邻近地区臭氧变化的相互作用

利用ERA-interim月平均再分析资料、相关分析和信息流方法,分析了1979~2015年夏半年（5~9月）100 hPa上南亚高压与邻近地区臭氧变化的相互作用。结果表明:除7月外,夏半年南亚高压与南亚高压区臭氧低值（简称臭氧低值）存在相互作用。6月和9月南亚高压和臭氧低值强度变化相互影响,而在5月和8月二者的作用仅仅是单向的。在6月南亚高压和臭氧低值的中部和西部边缘,以及9月南亚高压北部和臭氧低值中心区,臭氧低值增强（减弱）可能是南亚高压增强（减弱）的部分原因,南亚高压增强（减弱）也可能是臭氧低值增强（减弱）的部分原因。在6月南亚高压和臭氧低值的东南部、8月南亚高压和臭氧低值的西部和东部,以及9月南亚高压的西部,南亚高压增强（减弱）可能导致臭氧低值增强（减弱）。在5月南亚高压西部和臭氧低值南部,臭氧低值的增强（减弱）可能导致了南亚高压的增强（减弱）。根据相关分析,推测臭氧变化对南亚高压变化的可能影响机制如下:当南亚高压区臭氧浓度出现正异常时,辐射加热在其上部（下部）为负异常（正异常）,导致高层（低层）异常辐合（辐散）,从而导致下沉异常。高层异常辐合与下沉异常最终使南亚高压异常减弱。而臭氧浓度负异常导致南亚高压呈现正异常的过程与上述过程相反。     

淮河流域南部丘陵森林地区土壤-植被-大气相互作用:长期野外试验观测的初步分析

本文简要介绍了包括三部分观测的安徽淮南长期野外试验观测站,特别是土壤-植被-大气的集中观测,对小塔运行前三个月(2018年6月至8月)的数据,并结合同一时段大塔获得的数据,进行了初步分析.结果表明这些资料有合理的变化特征,日变化和夏季值特征显著,各月份间气象变化有明显差异.土壤水分和温度受降雨影响,在不同的下垫面条件下...     

Physical characterization of aerosol particles during nucleation events

Particle concentrations and size distributions have been measured from different heights inside and above a boreal forest during three BIOFOR campaigns (14 April–22 May 1998, 27 July–21 August 1998 and 20 March–24 April 1999) in Hyytiälä, Finland. Typically, the shape of the background distribution inside the forest exhibited 2 dominant modes: a fine or Aitken mode with a geometric number mean diameter of 44 nm and a mean concentration of 1160 cm⁻³ and an accumulation mode with mean diameter of 154 nm and a mean concentration of 830 cm⁻³. A coarse mode was also present, extending up to sizes of 20 μm having a number concentration of 1.2 cm⁻³, volume mean diameter of 2.0 μm and a geometric standard deviation of 1.9. Aerosol humidity was lower than 50% during the measurements. Particle production was observed on many days, typically occurring in the late morning. Under these periods of new particle production, a nucleation mode was observed to form at diameter of the order of 3 nm and, on most occasions, this mode was observed to grow into Aitken mode sizes over the course of a day. Total concentrations ranged from 410–45 000 cm⁻³, the highest concentrations occurring on particle production days. A clear gradient was observed between particle concentrations encountered below the forest canopy and those above, with significantly lower concentrations occurring within the canopy. Above the canopy, a slight gradient was observed between 18 m and 67 m, with at maximum 5% higher concentration observed at 67 m during the strongest concentration increases.     

Hadley环流上升支演变特征及其与低纬大气臭氧变化的关系

利用最新的NCEP/NCAR的逐月平均风场资料及ECMWF的逐月多层臭氧质量混合资料,通过定义Hadley环流上升支强度指数(HAI),用质量流函数的方法研究了纬圈平均Hadley环流上升支的演变特征及其与低纬地区不同层次大气臭氧变化的关系。结果表明,①冬季和夏季HAI较大,最大值出现在2月和8月,春、秋季HAI较小,最小值出现在5月和11月;Hadley环流上升支的位置随季节和强度变化;冬季Hadley环流上升支所跨纬度最宽,夏季最窄。②各季节代表月份的HAI具有一定的年代际特征,即1月、4月具有负距平-相持-正距平的年代际特征,线性增强趋势明显;7月、10月则表现为距平的正-负-正变化,但7月HAI在2012年以后有明显减弱趋势。总体上各季节HAI从1990年代中后期开始逐渐增强。③除春季外,Hadley环流上升支对低纬对流层臭氧的动力输送作用显著,Hadley环流上升运动越强,上升支所对应纬度带对流层臭氧浓度越低,南北两个下沉区对流层臭氧浓度越高。④ HAI表现为强指数年时,低纬对流层臭氧整体表现为增加,平流层中下部臭氧减少,体现出彼此的长期综合影响。      

Photochemistry in the Arctic Free Troposphere: Ozone Budget and Its Dependence on Nitrogen Oxides and the Production Rate of Free Radicals

Local ozone production and loss rates for the arctic free troposphere (58–85° N, 1–6 km, February–May) during the TroposphericOzone Production about the Spring Equinox (TOPSE) campaign were calculated using a constrained photochemical box model. Estimates were made to assess the importance of local photochemical ozone production relative to transport in accounting for the springtime maximum in arctic free tropospheric ozone. Ozone production and loss rates from our diel steady-state box model constrained by median observations were first compared to two point box models, one run to instantaneous steady-state and the other run to diel steady-state. A consistent picture of local ozone photochemistry was derived by all three box models suggesting that differences between the approaches were not critical. Our model-derived ozone production rates increased by a factor of 28 in the 1–3 km layer and a factor of 7 in the 3–6 kmlayer between February and May. The arctic ozone budget required net import of ozone into the arctic free troposphere throughout the campaign; however, the transport term exceeded the photochemical production only in the lower free troposphere (1–3 km) between February and March. Gross ozone production rates were calculated to increase linearly with NO_x mixing ratiosup to 300 pptv in February and for NO_x mixing ratios up to 500 pptv in May. These NO_x limits are an order of magnitude higher thanmedian NO_x levels observed, illustrating the strong dependence ofgross ozone production rates on NO_x mixing ratios for the majority of theobservations. The threshold NO_x mixing ratio needed for netpositive ozone production was also calculated to increase from NO_x 10pptv in February to 25 pptv in May, suggesting that the NO_x levels needed to sustain net ozone production are lower in winter than spring. This lower NO_x threshold explains how wintertime photochemical ozone production can impact the build-up of ozone over winter and early spring. There is also an altitude dependence as the threshold NO_x neededto produce net ozone shifts to higher values at lower altitudes. This partly explains the calculation of net ozone destruction for the 1–3 km layerand net ozone production for the 3–6 km layer throughout the campaign.