Possible Density Change of the Origin of North Pacific Intermediate Water Due to Double Diffusion in the Mixed Water Region

In this study we test Talley's hypothesis that Oyashio winter mixed-layer water (26.5–26.6σ _θ) increases its density to produce the North Pacific Intermediate Water (NPIW) salinity minimum (26.7– 26.8σ_θ) in the Mixed Water Region, assuming a combination of cabbeling and double diffusion. The possible density change of Oyashio winter mixed-layer water is discussed using an instantaneous ratio of the change of temperature and salinity along any particular intrusion (R _l ). We estimate the range of R _l ^DD required to convert Oyashio winter mixed-layer water to the NPIW salinity minimum due to double diffusion, and then assume double-diffusive intrusions as this conversion mechanism. A double-diffusive intrusion model is used to estimate R _l ^DD in a situation where salt fingering dominates vertical mixing, as well as to determine whether Oyashio winter mixed-layer water can become the NPIW salinity minimum. Possible density changes are estimated from the model R _l ^DD by assuming the amount of density change due to cabbeling. From these results, we conclude that Oyashio winter mixed-layer water contributes to a freshening of the lighter layer of the NPIW salinity minimum (around 26.70σ_θ) in the MWR.     

夏季黄东海硝酸盐垂向扩散通量的分析

湍流扩散过程导致的硝酸盐垂向输运对海水表层的浮游植物生长和初级生产力的大小有着重要影响。本文基于2018年夏季黄、东海水文环境、硝酸盐浓度和湍动能耗散率的同步、原位数据,分析了海域温度、盐度和硝酸盐的空间分布特征,结果表明营养盐含量丰富的黄海冷水团、长江冲淡水、东海北部底层混合水与黑潮次表层水是影响研究海域硝酸盐分布的主要水团。利用垂向湍扩散硝酸盐通量公式,计算了三个选定断面上的硝酸盐垂向扩散通量,其高值区与湍流扩散系数的高值区的位置基本一致。针对存在明显硝酸盐跃层的站位,计算得到跨硝酸盐跃层的垂向通量F_ND的范围在-9.78—36.60mmol/（m²·d）之间,在黄海冷水团区,夏季温跃层限制了该区营养盐向近表层的湍流垂向扩散;东海北部底层混合水区,湍流垂向扩散向上层补充了大量硝酸盐,促进了跃层之上浮游植物的生长;黑潮次表层水影响海区,夏季中层水体混合较弱,跨跃层的垂向通量也普遍偏低。开展硝酸盐垂向扩散通量的计算与分析,对进一步明确营养盐的输运机制有着重要研究意义。     

Cretan deep water outflow into the Eastern Mediterranean

A simple hydraulic model is used to estimate the deep water fluxes of Cretan Deep Water (CDW), through the Cretan Arc Straits and into the Eastern Mediterranean Basins. The input to the model consists of the height of the deep water reservoir above sill depth and its density difference from the overlying water masses. Data from four hydrographic cruises, which took place in 1995, 1991 and 1987, are used to estimate the depth of the reservoir above the sill and the density difference. The results show a significant CDW outflow of 0.75×10⁶ m³ s⁻¹ in early 1995. The outflow of CDW through Kassos Strait, in the east, is 0.53×10⁶ m³ s⁻¹, while 0.22×10⁶ m³ s⁻¹ outflows through the Antikithira Strait in the west. The model results agree with fluxes estimated from current meter observations.The CDW outflow has been neither steady nor uniform during the period 1987–95. In the Kassos Strait, the outflow commenced in 1987 and increased rapidly until 1991; since then, it appears to have stabilised. In the Antikithira Strait, in contrast, the outflow has increased steadily since 1987. Such modifications in the CDW outflow are associated with changes in its hydrographic characteristics. The salinity of CDW increased constantly, by approximately 0.1, between 1987 and 1995 while its temperature warmed, between 1987 and 1991, and then cooled.     

潮致余流和潮混合对长江口外东北海域低盐水团的作用

长江冲淡水对黄海、东海水文环境有重要影响,它主要以羽状形态向外海扩展,在某些年份的特殊时间段也存在孤立的低盐水团现象。在低盐水团的动力机制研究中,风、径流量、台湾暖流、天文潮和斜压不稳定的作用已得到讨论。天文潮对冲淡水及低盐水团的影响主要包括潮致余流和潮混合,潮致余流作用仍缺乏讨论。本文对1983年8月低盐水团的动力机制进行数值模拟分析,重点讨论了潮致余流和潮混合的影响。结果表明:潮致Lagrange余流促使一部分冲淡水从口门向北输运,在32°N附近呈舌状转向东,有利于在口外东北海域形成低盐水团;小潮转大潮的垂向混合作用加强,浅水区表层盐度升高的速度快于较深水区,也有利于在口外东北海域形成低盐水团。     

Formulation, implementation and examination of vertical coordinate choices in the Global Navy Coastal Ocean Model (NCOM)

A 1/8° global version of the Navy Coastal Ocean Model (NCOM) is described with details of its formulation, implementation, and configuration of the vertical coordinate. NCOM is a baroclinic, hydrostatic, Boussinesq, free-surface ocean model that allows its vertical coordinate to consist of σ coordinates for the upper layers and z-levels below a user-specified depth. This flexibility allows implementation of a hybrid σ–z coordinate system that is expected to mitigate some of the weaknesses that can be associated with either pure coordinate option. For the global NCOM application, the σ–z coordinate is used to allow terrain-following σ coordinates in the upper ocean, providing better resolution and topographic fidelity in shelf regions where flow is most sensitive to its representation. Including z coordinates for deeper regions efficiently maintains high near-surface vertical resolution in the open ocean. Investigation into the impact of the selected coordinate system focuses on differences between atmospherically-forced free-running (no assimilation) global solutions using σ–z and pure z coordinates. Comparisons with independent temperature observations indicate that global NCOM using the σ–z coordinate has improved skill relative to its z coordinate implementation. Among other metrics, we show that in comparison with time series of surface temperature from National Oceanic Data Center (NODC) buoys, mostly located in coastal regions, root mean squared differences (RMSD) improved for 63% and correlation improved for 71% of the stations when σ–z coordinates were used instead of pure z. For the exclusively open-ocean Tropical Atmosphere-Ocean (TAO) buoys, differences between the simulations were small, with the σ–z showing smaller RMSD for 45% of the stations and higher correlation for 65% of the stations. Additional comparisons using temperature profile observations further confirm a tendency for improved performance using the hybrid σ–z coordinates.     

Skewed Occurrence Frequency of Water Temperature and Salinity in the Subarctic Regions

In a previous paper (Oguma and Nagata, 2002), it was shown that frequency distributions of temperature and salinity in the sea off Sanriku Coast, Japan are skewed, and sometimes observed values exceed m + 5σ (m = mean, σ = standard deviation). This means that, if we apply a 3σ criterion for a range check, many real data would be lost. We have expanded our analysis to the subarctic North Pacific, the subarctic North Atlantic and their surrounding areas, by computing the distributions of skewness and kurtosis. It is found that the region of high positive skewness extends in an east-north-east direction in the Mixed Water Region from off Sanriku, and reaches to about 155°E. A high negative skewness zone is recognized along the southern margin of the Kuroshio Extension. These are thought to be generated by the breaking of the meander of the Kuroshio Extension and subsequent ejection of warm and cold eddies to the north and south, respectively. Other high positive skewness areas are found to the south of Kuril Islands and in the Japan Sea. These are generated due to very sharp vertical gradients of temperature and salinity. The situation in the North Atlantic is very similar to the North Pacific, though the detailed nature is changed due to differences of oceanographic condition. The effect of grid size on the skewed nature of the distribution is also discussed. This revised version was published online in July 2006 with corrections to the Cover Date.     

Formation Process of North Pacific Intermediate Water Revealed by Profiling Floats Set to Drift on 26.7 σθ Isopycnal Surface

Six newly developed floats, which were set to drift on the 26.7 σ_θ isopycnal surface and to profile temperature, salinity and pressure above 1000 dbar once a week, were deployed in the Oyashio and Kuroshio Extension (KE) in order to examine the circulation, formation site and time scale of newly formed North Pacific Intermediate Water (NPIW). The floats were deployed in February or May 2001, and the data from their deployments to December 2002 are analyzed here. Four of the six floats were deployed near the KE axis at around the first meander crest, and they moved eastward to 157°E–176°W at latitudes of 30°N–45°N. The other two floats deployed in the Oyashio water with low-potential vorticity near the south coast of Hokkaido moved southward to reach the KE front and then moved eastward to the same region as the first four floats. The temperature and salinity at 26.7 σ_θ measured by the profiling floats indicate that the source waters of NPIW, Oyashio and Kuroshio waters are drastically mixed and modified in the mixed water region west of 160°E. The floats were separated into the three paths east of 160°E between the Kuroshio Extension front and the north of Water-Mass front (nearly subarctic front). New NPIW is judged to be formed along these three paths since the vertical profiles of temperature and salinity are quite smooth, having a salinity minimum at about 26.7σ_θ along each path. Kuroshio-Oyashio isopycnal mixing ratios of the new NPIW are 7:3, 6:4 and 5:5 at 26.7σ_θ along the southern, middle and northern paths, respectively. Potential vorticity converges to about 14–15 × 10⁻¹¹ m⁻¹s⁻¹ along these paths. The time scale of new NPIW formation is estimated to be 1–1.5 years from the merger of Oyashio and Kuroshio waters to the formation of the new NPIW. This revised version was published online in July 2006 with corrections to the Cover Date.     

Significance of oxides and particulate organic matter in controlling trace metal partitioning in a contaminated estuary

The sediment–water partitioning of radiolabelled Cd, Hg and Zn has been investigated along an estuarine salinity gradient using samples from the Mersey Estuary, UK. Partitioning was studied using untreated particles, and particles that had been extracted using either a reducing agent (NH₂OH.HCl–HOAc) or an oxidising agent (H₂O₂) in order to qualitatively evaluate the relative roles of Fe–Mn oxides and particulate organic matter (POM), respectively, on metal uptake. The extent of Cd partitioning between sediment and water, parameterised in terms of the distribution coefficient, K_D, exhibited a reduction with increasing salinity, regardless of whether or not particles had been digested. However, the magnitude of K_D decreased significantly following either chemical treatment, suggesting that both oxides and organic matter are important sorbents for Cd. The K_D for Hg in the presence of untreated particles increased with increasing salinity, and chemical reduction of the particles enhanced the uptake of Hg and reinforced this trend. Particle oxidation led to a significant reduction in the K_D for Hg, and uptake by the particles decreased with increasing salinity. These observations suggest that POM is considerably more important than Fe–Mn oxides in the removal of aqueous Hg, and that its presence is a prerequisite for enhanced sorption (or salting out) at elevated salinities. The salinity dependence of K_D for Zn displayed characteristics of both Cd (below salinities of about 5) and Hg (at greater salinities). However, the magnitude of K_D for Zn uptake was relatively insensitive to either chemical treatment, suggesting that oxides, POM, and residual phases contribute to the overall sorption of Zn by estuarine particles. Regression analyses of the metal partition data suggest that sorption to oxides and POM is nonadditive, and that the salinity dependence of metal partitioning results mainly from salinity-controlled interactions between metal and organic matter. Sequential extraction of metals bound to untreated and chemically treated particles in the partitioning experiments indicated that the exchangeability or lability of all metals increased on removal of either oxides or POM. This implies that sorption sites of relatively high energy are destroyed (or become less accessible), or sorption sites of relatively low energy are created (or become more accessible) on chemical treatment. These observations support a conceptual model for the particle surface whose integrity and binding properties are only maintained by the coexistence of and interaction between oxides and organic matter.     

Effects of the Anticyclonic Eddies on Water Masses, Chemical Parameters and Chlorophyll Distributions in the Oyashio Current Region

Data from the R/V Mirai cruise (May–June 2000) have been examined to discover how mesoscale processes associated with eddy dynamics direct affect the water masses, the distributions and the vertical fluxes of the dissolved oxygen, nutrients and dissolved inorganic carbon in the western subarctic Pacific. Using maps of the temperature, salinity, dissolved oxygen, nutrients, chlorophyll and sea-air pCO₂ difference we show that the boundaries of the anticyclone eddies in the study region were composed of high productivity coastal Oyashio water. The coastal waters were wrapped around the anticyclone eddies (thus creating a high productivity belt) and intruded inside of them. Using SeaWifs data we demonstrate that temporal variations in the position and the strength of anticyclone eddies advected the Kuril island coastal high productivity waters to the pelagic part, resulting in temporal variations of the chlorophyll in the Oyashio region. Computed vertical fluxes of the dissolved oxygen (DO), inorganic carbon (DIC) and silicate show that the anticylonic eddies in the Kuroshio-Oyashio Zone are characterized by enhanced vertical fluxes of the DO and DIC between the upper (σ_θ = 26.7–27.0) and lower (σ_θ = 27.1–27.5) intermediate layer, probably due to the intrusions of the Oyashio waters into the eddies. This revised version was published online in August 2006 with corrections to the Cover Date.     

Indirect evidence of deep flow east of a North Pacific seamount

East-west vertical sections centered on Kinmei Seamount (35N, 172E) of potential temperature, salinity, and oxygen, based on recent standard hydrographic measurements, and vertical profiles ofin situ temperature and density ( ₄) east of the seamount, based on STD data, show contrasting variability in the deep water characteristics east and west of the seamount. These data are consistent with horizontal variations in water mass properties (temperature-salinity and temperature-oxygen curves) east of the seamount between 2,600–3,900 m but not west of the seamount. East of the seamount on surfaces of constant potential temperature (or density) salinity and oxygen are higher at a station 200 km from the seamount than at stations on either side. From these relations and from known deep water properties of the North Pacific, it is suggested that east of the seamount, between 2,600–3,900 m, the observations are consistent with northward flow, which is interpreted to be a western boundary current with an east-west scale of about 300 km.     

Horizontal Pressure Gradient Errors of the Monterey Bay Sigma Coordinate Ocean Model with Various Grids

A coastal ocean -coordinate model of Monterey Bay (MOB) with realistic bottom topography and coastlines is developed using the Princeton Ocean Model (POM) and grid generation technique (GGT) to study the horizontal pressure gradient errors associated with the MOB steep topography. The submarine canyon in MOB features some of the steepest topography encountered anywhere in the world oceans. The MOB grids are designed using the EAGEAL View and GENIE⁺⁺ grid generation systems. A grid package developed by Ly and Luong (1993) is used in this study to couple grids to the model. The MOB model is tested with both orthogonal and curvilinear nearly-orthogonal (CNO) grids. The CNO grid has horizontal resolution which varies from 300 m to 2 km, while the resolution of the orthogonal grid is uniform with x = 1.25 km and y = 1.38 km. These grids cover a domain of 180 × 160 km with the same number of grid points of 131 × 131. Vertical resolutions of 25, 35 and 45 vertical sigma levels are tested. The error in the MOB are evaluated in terms of mean kinetic energy and velocity against various grids, vertical, horizontal resolution and distributions, and bottom topography smoothing. Simulations with various grids show that GGT can be used as another tool in reducing -coordinate errors in coastal ocean modeling besides increasing resolution and smoothing bottom topography. Topographical smoothing not only reduces topographic slope, but changes realistic topography. A CNO grid with a high grid density packed along steep slopes and Monterey Submarine Canyon reduces the errors by 40% compared to a rectangular grid with the same number of grid points. The CNO grid is more efficient than the rectangular grid, since it has most of its grids over water. The simulations show that the presented MOB -coordinate model can be used with a confidence regarding horizontal pressure gradient error.     

A quasi-three-dimensional numerical prediction model of salinity structure in Bohai Sea and Huanghai Sea

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春季长江冲淡水在口门外海域逐月变化及其影响因素分析

利用2015年4、5、6月在长江口外开展综合海洋调查获取的实测数据,分析春季口门外海域长江冲淡水（Changjiang diluted water,CDW）时空分布特征及扩散过程,并结合同期的多源环境观测数据,探讨各环境动力因素对春季长江冲淡水分布的影响,深化对冲淡水在口门外海域扩展及其动态变化的认识。观测结果显示,2015年春季长江冲淡水的扩散范围逐月增大,主体最远可到达123°E以东海域,其逐月变化主要受控于口外水文气象环境。长江径流量大小决定了冲淡水出口门后的分布范围以及表层水盐度,风向则控制冲淡水的扩展态势。在风场与径流的共同作用下,春季口门外海域长江冲淡水的扩散呈现三种模式：4月份的顺岸南下型（冬季型）、5月份的东北转向型（过渡型）和6月份的东南-东北双向分支型（夏季型）。春季台湾暖流深层水已到达长江口外海域,与表层冲淡水层相互作用较弱,但随着上升流的逐月增强,其与上层低盐冲淡水之间的跃层效应愈发显著,一方面抑制长江冲淡水的向下扩展,同时上升流的涌升也减薄了冲淡水的厚度。再悬浮泥沙向上扩散的厚度显示出春季潮混合过程难以影响至表层,但在大潮情况下,水位波动变化更为剧烈,使外海高盐海水向陆上溯更远,导致5月份12250E断面的水体盐度整体相对较高。     

Characteristics of a front formed by cooling of the sea surface and inflow of the fresh water

Two numerical studies (Endoh, 1977;Harashima et al., 1978) have been proposed on a front formed by a coupling effect of cooling of the sea surface and inflow of the fresh water in a vertical two-dimensional plane without the rotation of the earth. It is, however, not easy to interpret their numerical results. A simple interpretation will be proposed by an analytical study in this paper.It is found that local convection due to the density inversion, which is expressed by the convective adjustment of the vertical diffusion coefficient in the actual numerical calculations, plays an important role on the front formation.The characteristics of the front is also clarified in the case of steady state. Namely, simple functional dependences are obtained of the position and the width of the front, the horizontal and the vertical velocities and the distribution of the buoyancy and the salinity in the neighborhood of the front on the horizontal coordinate, the cooling rate, the eddy coefficients of diffusion and viscosity, the water depth and the vertically averaged horizontal fluxes of buoyancy and salinity.     

长江口海域水文环境要素分布及溶解氧垂向输运

本文基于2016年长江口海域(舟山绿华山)的连续观测数据,分析了该海域水文环境要素分布,并估算了溶解氧跨跃层垂向输运。本次观测发现,水体的温度、盐度和溶解氧剖面具有明显的分层结构,三者跃层具有相同的变化趋势且主要受潮流变化影响。通过计算,得到跃层浮性频率的平方(N2)在10–3—10–2/s2之间,剪切的平方(S2)介于10–5—10–2/s2。潮流活动会激发水体剪切不稳定促进水体中溶解氧的垂向交换。最后,采用简化的一维溶解氧垂向输运模型,得到观测周期内跨跃层输运的溶解氧的含量为4.75mmol/(m2·d),佐证层化是长江口海域出现氧亏损现象的主要原因之一。     

Distribution of Changjiang Diluted Water detected by satellite chlorophyll-a and its interannual variation during 1998–2007

Sea-viewing Wide Field-of-view Sensor (SeaWiFS) chlorophyll-a distribution in summer in the East China Sea during 1998–2007 was analyzed. Statistical analysis with K-means clustering technique allowed us to define the proper satellite chlorophyll-a concentration indicating the Changjiang Diluted Water (CDW). The spatial distributions of the higher satellite chlorophyll-a concentrations (>0.48 mg m⁻³) corresponded well with the distributions of lower salinity CDW (<30–32) every year. Interannual variation of the CDW area, indicated by the high satellite chlorophyll-a, correlated with the interannual variation of the Changjiang summer freshwater discharge. The correlation analysis indicated that the CDW spread eastward in the East China Sea with a time lag of 1 to 2 months after the discharge.     

Short-term temperature and salinity variations in the Tsushima Strait in 2004: Behavior of the surface low-salinity water in the strait

Temporal variations in temperature and salinity observed in 2004 were investigated on a short time scale in the Tsushima Strait. The data were obtained by long-term in situ measurements at Mitsushima and Futaoi Island using an instrument equipped with a piston-type wiper to avoid biofouling. In addition, the temperature and salinity values of the surface layer obtained by a commercial ferryboat between Hakata and Busan were used to investigate their spatiotemporal variations. Temperature and salinity variations with a time scale of several days had a negative correlation in the summer. This evidence suggests that a warm and less saline water mass, which is considered to be mainly the Changjiang Diluted Water (CDW), flowed intermittently through the Tsushima Strait in summer. In late July 2004, a large low-salinity water mass was detected in the Tsushima Strait. At that time, the freshwater transport through the Tsushima Strait transiently reached about 12 × 10⁴ m³s⁻¹, which is estimated from observed acoustic Doppler current profiler (ADCP) data along a ferryboat line and inferred salinity profiles. This estimated value is more than double the maximum of the climatological monthly mean of the Changjiang discharge. Furthermore, salinity and surface current data obtained by high frequency ocean radar (HF radar) indicate that water properties at Mitsushima may occasionally represent part of the water flowing through the western channel via a countercurrent, although Mitsushima is geographically located in the eastern channel.     

New type of pycnostad in the western subtropical-subarctic transition region of the North Pacific: Transition Region Mode Water

A new type of pycnostad has been identified in the western subtropical-subarctic transition region of the North Pacific, based on the intensive hydrographic survey carried out in July, 2002. The potential density, temperature and salinity of the pycnostad were found to be 26.5–26.7 σ _θ , 5°–7°C and 33.5–33.9 psu respectively. The pycnostad is denser, colder and fresher than those of the North Pacific Central Mode Water and different from those of other known mode waters in the North Pacific. The thickness of the pycnostad is comparable to that of other mode waters, spreading over an area of at least 650 × 500 km around 43°N and 160°E in the western transition region. Hence, we refer to the pycnostad as Transition Region Mode Water (TRMW). Oxygen data, geostrophic current speed and climatology of mixed layer depth in the winter suggest that the TRMW is formed regularly in the deep winter mixed layer near the region where it was observed. Analysis of surface heat flux also supports the idea and suggests that there is significant interannual variability in the property of the TRMW. The TRMW is consistently distributed between the Subarctic Boundary and the Subarctic Front. It is also characterized by a wide T-S range with similar density, which is the characteristic of such a transition region between subtropical and subarctic water masses, which forms a density-compensating temperature and salinity front. The frontal nature also tends to cause isopycnal intrusions within the pycnostad of the TRMW.     

印尼贯穿流源区马鲁古海和哈马黑拉海水团来源的气候态分析

本文利用World Ocean Atlas 2013（WOA2013）气候态的温盐资料和the Simple Ocean Data Assimilation （SODA v3.3.1）流场数据,分析印尼贯穿流东部源区马鲁古海和哈马黑拉海的水团垂向分布特征及其来源,特别是次表层、中层及深层水的来源和路径。结果表明,气候态下,马鲁古海次表层的高温高盐水来自于北太平洋,与北太平洋热带水性质接近,哈马黑拉海次表层主要是来自南太平洋热带水;中层水以低温低盐为特征,马鲁古海的中层水来自南太平洋,受南极中层水控制,哈马黑拉海的中层水可能是从马鲁古海而来的南太平洋水;对于次表层和中层之间的过渡层,马鲁古海与哈马黑拉海的水源为南、北太平洋的混合水,且两个海域之间也存在着水团交换;在深层,马鲁古海的水源更倾向于班达海北部及塞兰海,而与太平洋水无关,哈马黑拉海由于地形阻挡也难以与太平洋直接发生水团交换。     

Numerical study on residual current and its impact on mass transport in the Hangzhou Bay and the Changjiang Estuary I. A3-D joint model of the Hangzhou Bay and the Changjiang Estuary

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