新太古界Campbellrand亚群白云岩岩溶系统对南非Postmasburg锰矿田的影响

为分析新太古界Campbellrand亚群白云岩基底形成的岩溶系统对南非Postmasburg锰矿田发育和分布的影响,笔者等利用XRF和偏光显微镜鉴定技术,结合野外地质调查和岩芯钻探,对矿石的矿物成分、矿体中的Mn、Fe空间分布、Doornfontein砾岩的结构特征、白云岩容矿构造的形态进行了研究。结果表明：Maremane穹隆上的Campbellrand亚群白云岩遭受了两次大规模的溶蚀。溶蚀构造引起沉积物分异,沉积建造底部Mn质最为富集,向外、向上逐渐由Fe质主导,形成褐锰矿—方铁锰矿—赤铁矿的序列,顶部则演变为铝土质岩。沉积序列中Mn+Fe质和Al质含量呈现出较强的负相关性。溶坑的特殊形态导致矿体受层控,但并不呈现规则的层状形态。东矿带的Wolhaarkop硅质角砾岩与白云岩中的燧石和硅质白云岩密切相关,而混合带和西矿带普遍发育的Doornfontein砾岩则是岩溶作用影响下锰质的成岩作用被推迟所形成,它们都是成矿期岩溶系统发育的间接产物。溶坑底部的锰土混合物揭示了成矿后期溶蚀作用的发生和沉积序列的坍塌破碎,小型的断层也造成了矿体的严重破碎和顶板地层的褶曲。Gamagara低山脊...     

新太古界Campbellrand亚群白云岩岩溶系统对南非Postmasburg锰矿田的影响

为分析新太古界Campbellrand亚群白云岩基底形成的岩溶系统对南非Postmasburg锰矿田发育和分布的影响,利用XRF和偏光显微镜鉴定技术,结合野外地质调查和岩芯钻探,对矿石的矿物成分、矿体中的Mn、Fe空间分布、Doornfontein砾岩的结构特征、白云岩容矿构造的形态进行了研究。结果表明：Maremane穹隆上的Campbellrand亚群白云岩遭受了两次大规模的溶蚀。溶蚀构造引起沉积物分异,沉积建造底部Mn质最为富集,向外、向上逐渐由Fe质主导,形成褐锰矿—方铁锰矿—赤铁矿的序列,顶部则演变为铝土质岩。沉积序列中Mn+Fe质和Al质含量呈现出较强的负相关性。溶坑的特殊形态导致矿体受层控,但并不呈现规则的层状形态。东矿带的Wolhaarkop硅质角砾岩与白云岩中的燧石和硅质白云岩密切相关,而混合带和西矿带普遍发育的Doornfontein砾岩则是岩溶作用影响下锰质的成岩作用被推迟所形成,它们都是成矿期岩溶系统发育的间接产物。溶坑底部的锰土混合物揭示了成矿后期溶蚀作用的发生和沉积序列的坍塌破碎,小型的断层也造成了矿体的严重破碎和顶板地层的褶曲。Gamagara低山脊两侧分布的小型堆积型矿体也与后期地表岩溶系统长期的发育有关。     

Archaean lode gold mineralisation in banded iron formation at the Kalahari Goldridge deposit, Kraaipan Greenstone Belt, South Africa

The Kalahari Goldridge Mine is located within the Archaean Kraaipan Greenstone Belt, about 60 km southwest of Mafikeng in the North West Province, South Africa. The ore body thickness varies from 15 to 45 m along a strike length of about 1.5 km within approximately N–S striking banded iron formation (BIF). The stratabound ore body is hosted primarily by BIF, which consists of alternating chert and magnetite–chlorite–stilpnomelane–sulphide–carbonate bands of millimetre- to centimetre scale. A footwall of sericite–carbonate–chlorite schist underlain by mafic amphibolite occurs to the west and carbonaceous metapelites in the hanging wall to the east. Overlying the hanging wall, carbonaceous metapelites, units of coarse-grained metagreywackes fining upwards, become increasingly conglomeratic up the stratigraphy. Small-scale isoclinal folds, brecciation, extension fractures and boudinage of cherty BIF units reflect brittle-ductile deformation. Fold axial planes have foliation, with subvertical plunges parallel to prominent rodding and mineral lineation in the footwall rocks. Gold mineralisation is associated with two generations of quartz–carbonate veins, dipping approximately 20° to 40° W. The first generation consists of ladder-vein sets (group IIA) preferentially developed in centimetre-scale Fe-rich mesobands, whereas the second generation consists of large quartz–carbonate veins (group IIB), which locally crosscut the entire ore body and extend into the footwall and hanging wall. The ore body is controlled by mesoscale isoclinal folds approximately 67° E, orthogonal to the plane of mineralised, gently dipping veins, defining the principal stretching direction and development of fluid-focussing conduits. The intersections of the mineralised veins and foliation planes of the host rock plunges approximately 08° to the north. Pervasive hydrothermal alteration is characterised by chloritisation, carbonatisation, sulphidation and K-metasomatism. Gold is closely associated with sulphides, mainly pyrite and pyrrhotite, and to a lesser extent, with bismuth tellurides and carbonate minerals. Mass balance transfer calculations indicate that hydrothermal alteration of BIF involved enrichment of Au, Ag, Bi, Te, S and CO₂ (LOI), MgO, Ba, K and Rb, but significant depletion of SiO₂ and, to a lesser extent, Fe₂O₃. Extensive replacement of magnetite and chlorite in BIF and other pelitic sedimentary rocks by sulphide and carbonate minerals, both on mesoscopic and microscopic scales, is evidence of interaction of CO₂- and H₂S-bearing fluids with the Fe-rich host rocks. The fineness of gold grains ranges from 823 to 921, similar to that of other epigenetic Archaean BIF-hosted gold deposits, worldwide.     

南非Postmasburg地区锰矿床地质特征及成因分析

以南非Postmasburg地区Bishop、Paling两个矿区为研究载体,将研究区的地层划分为6个岩性单元,自下而上分别为白云岩单元、铁锰矿体单元、铁质细砂岩/铁质砾岩单元、泥质粉砂岩单元、石英岩/Gamagara页岩单元和Paling页岩单元。识别出了沉积受变质型、堆积型和锰质软泥或锰土型三类矿床,并讨论了其成因模型。根据地层序列特征,将研究区的发育与演化过程划分为4个阶段。分析表明:锰质软泥或锰土是富锰白云岩遭受溶蚀后的残余物。沉积序列各单元为渐变关系,而与白云岩单元之间为不整合接触关系。三种矿床类型都与白云岩的岩溶系统有关,锰质软泥或锰土中的锰来源于富锰白云岩,另外两种则可能来源于安山岩。两次岩溶系统之后分别形成了沉积受变质型矿床和堆积型矿床。成矿后期矿体受到Marthaspoort石英岩的保护而保存下来。     

南非Bishop锰矿区钻探方法的应用探讨

南非Bishop锰矿区内地层序列稳定,但下部地层较为破碎,采用岩心钻进方式速度慢,且成本较高。为探索一种更为合理的钻探方式组合,在矿区内选取ZK17-01作为岩心钻孔,并在其附近的RC17-01实施空气反循环钻孔以做对比。结果表明,反循环钻探质量更可靠,满足地质编录要求,平均钻进速度为岩心钻探的9倍,成本仅为1/3。因此可以采用反循环钻探开孔、见矿后用岩心钻探续作的优化方法,提高整体钻探速度,降低成本,并减少由于地层破碎产生的钻探事故。     

Geomorphological palaeoenvironments of the Sneeuberg Range,Great Karoo,South Africa

Sedimentary sequences within headwater valleys on the landward side of the Great Escarpment of South Africa are elucidated and their significance as indicators of environmental change is assessed. This study focuses on the Sneeuberg Range, the most prominent mountain range in the semi‐arid central Great Karoo. Valley fills of a hitherto unrecognised complexity and of a greater age than any previously recorded in the central Great Karoo are reported. Three phases of deposition spanning the Late Pleistocene up to the present are documented from sites where gully erosion has incised the valley fills. The earliest depositional phase is represented by deeply weathered, calcretised gravel deposits, which probably were emplaced by debris flow and fluvial processes in the form of a fan. These deposits subsequently were buried by finer grained, largely unconsolidated sediment, with much of this emplacement occurring during the Holocene. There is evidence for phases of landscape stability and instability within this facies. Finally, sheetwash has removed fine‐grained sediments from valley flanks and has deposited it either on valley bottoms, or in presently active gullies. This process appears to be ongoing, and is the subject of current investigation. The sedimentary deposits are interpreted as representing a wide range of palaeoenvironmental conditions that have prevailed within the central Great Karoo since the penultimate glaciation. Copyright © 2003 John Wiley & Sons, Ltd.     

Mobilizing the ethical consumer in South Africa

This paper presents a critical engagement with current initiatives for ethically-labeled goods in South Africa, thus offering an intervention in a literature on ethical consumption that has previously prioritized the global North. Through an interview-based methodology supported by focus groups in the Western Cape, the paper attends specifically to the strategies shaping recent forms of ethical consumption in South Africa on the part of business and civil society. Campaigns and strategies associated with three of the most prominent ethical labeling initiatives in South Africa—Proudly South African, Fairtrade Label South Africa and the Southern African Sustainable Seafood Initiative (SASSI)—are evaluated. Barnett et al.’s (2011: 90) notion of “mobilizing the ethical consumer” is brought into conversation with ethical consumption literature on local embeddedness in order to assess the ways in which the organizations responsible for these initiatives combine globalizing business and political networks of responsibility with local institutions and values in South Africa. The role played by the discursive construction of a growing South African ‘middle class’ is also acknowledged as part of the process of encouraging ethical consumption on the part of these actors. In conclusion, it is suggested that understanding ethical consumption in South Africa, as elsewhere, requires sensitivity to both transnational networks of globalizing responsibility and localized expressions of ethical consumption.     

The occurrence of potentially hazardous trace elements in five Highveld coals, South Africa

Permian coals of the southern hemisphere are generally considered to contain lower concentrations of sulfides, halogens, and trace elements when compared to northern hemisphere Carboniferous coals. Few studies have considered the trace element content in South African coals, and little or no work has been published for Highveld coals. Of the nineteen coal fields in South Africa, the Highveld coal field is one of the nine currently producing, and is second largest in terms of production. Five run of mine samples and a high ash middlings product from the Number 4 Lower seam were analyzed, totaling six sample sets. Fourteen trace elements (As, Cd, Co, Cr, Cu, Hg, Mn, Mo, Ni, Pb, Sb, Se, V, and Zn) were selected for this study based on the global perception that these elements may be hazardous to human health and/or the environment when they are released during coal utilization. Several sample preparation techniques were tested using certified reference materials (SARMs 18, 19 and 20) to determine the most repeatable technique for these coals. The samples were analyzed by ICP-AES and CVAA (Hg only). Microwave digestion proved to be generally unreliable despite the utilization of several different methods. A slurry direct injection method into the ICP-AES provided good correlations with the reference material, but requires further development to enhance the confidence level in this relatively unexplored technique. Samples prepared based on three ASTM standards for the determination of trace elements in coal provided repeatable results in most instances, and were the preparation methods utilized for the Highveld coals.The trace element values determined for the Highveld coals are generally in good agreement with values available in literature for South African coals, with the exception of Hg, Mn and Cr. Hg values reported here are lower, Cr and Mn higher. Results generally agree well with analyses on the same samples conducted by the United States Geological Survey. When considering the global ranges for trace elements, the Highveld range values are within Swaine's range boundaries with the exception of Cr. Compared to the cited global average values for the fourteen trace elements determined, the values obtained for the Highveld coals generally fall below or well below these average values, with the exception of Cr and Mn. Concentrations of Cd and Cu are lower compared to global average values, and As, Mo, Pb, Se, Sb, and Zn can be considered low to very low. Arsenic is ten times lower compared to typical USA values. Concentrations of Co and Ni are similar to global averages, with V and Hg being very slightly higher. The middlings samples reported higher concentrations of most elements, related to the higher ash content of these samples. Of interest, the chalcophile elements determined are all depleted in the Highveld coals compared to global averages, and the siderophile elements are enriched or comparable to global averages.Risk-based health studies in the USA on coals with similar or higher Hg and significantly higher As contents have not reported negative health effects, and therefore it could be assumed that the mobilization of these trace elements from the five Highveld coals are unlikely to cause human health problems. Work is ongoing to determine the modes of occurrence of these HAPs and to address the partitioning behaviors and speciation states of these elements during coal utilization.     

Management and sediment dynamics of the St. Lucia Estuary mouth,Zululand, South Africa

St. Lucia Estuary is on the subtropical, predominantly microtidal Zululand coast of South Africa. Lake St. Lucia's surface area fluctuates between 420 and 215 km² and has a mean depth of less than 1 m. The 21-km-long narrows connects Lake St. Lucia with the Indian Ocean. Tidal effects penetrate 14 km up the narrows. The St. Lucia system has changed substantially since the 1930s due to bad farming techniques within its catchment. Large amounts of sediment were deposited in the estuary mouth, resulting in relocation of the Mfolozi River mouth to the south at Mapelane. The St. Lucia catchment was subjected to two devastating floods in the last ten years: Cyclone Domoina during February 1984 and the September 1987 cutoff low flood. After floods scoured out the estuary, marine sand advanced up the estuary at a rate of 1200 m/y as a series of flood-tidal deltas. Over 600,000 m³ of sediment accumulated in the St. Lucia Estuary mouth from February 1988 to November 1989. Of this amount, 466,000 m³ of sediment was removed by dredging, although this has not stopped the shoaling. During high rainfall years, the estuary mouth is able to maintain an open outlet to the sea, but as lake levels drop, shoaling causes the mouth to constrict and eventually close. Without the dredging program the mouth would ultimately close during low rainfall years, causing management problems.     

Rb-Sr and Sm-Nd Mineral Isochron Ages of the Metamorphic Rocks in the Namaqualand Metamorphic Complex, South Africa

Rb-Sr and Sm-Nd isotopic studies were carried out for metamorphic rocks in the Namaqualand Metamorphic Complex, South Africa. The metamorphic rocks give the Rb-Sr mineral isochron ages (whole-rock - biotite - felsic fractions) of 844±85 Ma and 811.6±6.6 Ma for the lower granulite zone and of 776.5±5.4 Ma for the upper granulite zone. The rocks yield the Sm-Nd mineral isochron ages of 1071±18 Ma (whole-rock - garnet - felsic fractions) and 1067±158 Ma (whole-rock - hornblende - biotite rich fraction - felsic fractions) for the lower granulite zone and of 1052.0±3.6 Ma and 1002.5±1.4 Ma (whole-rock - garnet - felsic fractions) for the upper granulite zone. These age data suggest that the granulite facies metamorphism took place at 1060-1000 Ma, and that the rocks cooled down at 850-780 Ma. The Sr and Nd isotopic compositions of metamorphic rocks are different between the lower and upper granulite zones.     

Short communication: collection of isoseismal maps for South Africa

An atlas of isoseismal maps for South Africa, dating from as far back as 1932–2005, is provided. This work involved searching through historical reports to find records of macroseismic effects. In many instances, when there was a large tremor, questionnaires were distributed to local towns to assess the severity of the tremor and the damage it caused. Based on the results of these questionnaires and site investigations, isoseismal maps were drawn. These isoseismal maps were revisited and digitised for this study. Five additional isoseismal maps were prepared by the authors based on the results of questionnaires alone. Most isoseismal maps in the historical record use the Modified Mercalli scale. All maps are hence provided according to this scale. Electronic supplementary material  The online version of this article (doi:) contains supplementary material, which is available to authorized users.     

A critical overview of transboundary aquifers shared by South Africa

Transboundary groundwater commonly implies a body of groundwater intersected by a political border with the attendant potential threat of dispute over a shared resource. This definition is inadequate in many parts of southern Africa. Approximately 96% of South Africa’s borders are underlain by low-yielding aquifers and, coupled with a low demand for water attendant on low population density, the risk of over-pumping or pollution leading to dispute is low, and a modified understanding is required. Examples of transboundary aquifers are used to illustrate implications for policy and management of southern African transboundary groundwater resources, where transmissivities are low and, less commonly, where over-pumping may indeed be a problem. The general lack of technical cooperation, data sharing, training and research between the riparian states on hydrogeology hampers a mutual understanding of the resources. The concept of transboundary groundwater must necessarily include aquifers where little cross-border flow occurs, but where cross-border cooperation will help to ensure sustainable cooperative utilisation of shared aquifer resources. This is imperative if future disputes are to be averted. Agreement between scientists is a necessary precursor to broader transnational governance agreements in regard to shared water resources, and recent initiatives by the Orange-Senqu River Commission promise closer integration.     

Linguistic segregation in urban South Africa, 1996

South Africa is a multi-lingual country with 11 official languages and a recent history where language was frequently used as a political instrument, notably in the urban areas. Although the cities were initially colonial foundations, as a consequence of rural-urban migration, the speakers of the various national languages have come into close contact with one another. However, as a result of the inheritance of apartheid town planning and its emphasis on racial zoning, residential segregation levels between some linguistic groups have been extremely high. An analysis of the 1996 census results reveals that the uniformly high segregation levels between the speakers of indigenous African languages and the speakers of Afrikaans and English are the direct outcome of apartheid era town planning. Nevertheless, segregation between the speakers of different African languages may also on occasion be relatively high where homeland political policies were pursued, although this was the exception rather than the rule. Similarly segregation between English and Afrikaans speakers was locally high where home language coincided with former racial classification. Few immediate significant changes are anticipated in the present patterns of linguistic segregation, as the inherited apartheid city structure is proving to be remarkably resistant to transformation.     

Poverty, vulnerability and the impact of flooding in the Limpopo Province, South Africa

The article evaluates household vulnerability after the 2000 flood in two poor communities of the Limpopo Province, South Africa. The study analyses the forms of vulnerability which disasters such as floods present. Using data gathered from a survey of households, the study presents the impacts, coping and adapting strategies of households after the 2000 flood. The article argues that beyond the concern over socio-economic circumstances as the major determinant of household vulnerability, the management of the disaster can serve to perpetuate vulnerability.     

Late Quaternary fluvial activity in the dry valleys (mekgacha) of the Middle and Southern Kalahari,southern Africa

Kalahari dry ‘fossil’ valleys (mekgacha) have been little used in palaeoenvironmental reconstruction, partly because the origins and functions of the valleys are a subject of debate, and partly because they contain few datable sediments. In the Middle Kalahari the valleys are endoreic, and, following a decline in ground-water tables owing to human interference over the past 150 years, rarely contain water. Evidence from three sites suggests that the valleys contained standing water between 15000 and 12000 yr BP, and that the main Okwa-Mmone system flowed into palaeolake Makgadikgadi at 920 m a.s.l. during this period. The Southern Kalahari contains the exoreic Molopo network which is hydrologically more active, being prone to surface flows in response to extreme rainfall events. The spring—fed Kuruman valley has two terraces, the lower composed of a series of flood deposits of late Holocene age. The flood of February 1988 provides a useful analogue for the conditions under which these deposits were formed, and of the temporal regime of the Kuruman River. Comparison with adjacent sites suggests that evidence put forward to indicate cycles of climatic amelioration in the last 4000 yr may, in part, represents the effect of extreme precipitation events. Historical floods show a strong correlation to Southern Oscillation high-phase (cold event) episodes, suggesting possibilities for extension of the Southern Oscillation record through palaeoflood studies.     

Hybridity emergent: Geo-history, learning, and land restitution in South Africa

Market-Led Agrarian Reform (MLAR), which is advocated by the World Bank and is being implemented in various contexts around the world, is a more neo-liberal approach to land reform than that we have seen implemented in the past. MLAR principles have underpinned South Africa’s land reform programme, being based on the ‘willing-seller, willing-buyer’ principle, which guarantees market-related prices to sellers. Evidence presented in this paper, however, raises serious questions about the extent to which the South African government has held on to MLAR principles. Specifically, the paper argues that South Africa’s peculiar geo-historical context has in some instances led the government to fuse market-led approaches with more authoritarian interventions that dictate to land reform beneficiaries how the land will be used. A case in point is the government’s approach to the restitution of land rights to communities dispossessed from the Levubu area of Limpopo province. As the paper illustrates, the government has imposed on the intended beneficiaries a so-called ‘strategic partnership’ between them and agribusinesses. Although the government touts the approach as a way to protect the commercial viability of the land and to transfer skills from white farmers to the beneficiaries, the terms of the Levubu solution may turn out to be less than favourable for the beneficiaries.     

Geochemistry of bedded barite of the Mesoproterozoic Aggeneys-Gamsberg Broken Hill-type district,South Africa

Stratiform and stratabound barite ± magnetite beds are intimately associated with the polymetallic Broken Hill-type (BHT) massive sulfide deposits of the Aggeneys-Gamsberg Pb–Zn–Cu ± Ag–Ba district in the Northern Cape Province, South Africa. Barite samples were collected and studied from four localities in the district. Although metamorphic water–rock interaction processes have partially altered the chemical and to a lesser degree the isotopic composition of barite, samples identified as being the least altered display distinctly different isotopic compositions that are thought to reflect different modes of origin. All barite samples are marked by low concentrations of SrO (0.5 ± 0.2 wt%), highly radiogenic ⁸⁷Sr/⁸⁶Sr ratios, elevated δ ³⁴S and δ ¹⁸O values compared to contemporaneous Mesoproterozoic seawater. Radiogenic ⁸⁷Sr/⁸⁶Sr signatures (0.7164 ± 0.0028) point to an evolved continental crustal source for Sr and Ba, while elevated δ ³⁴S values (27.3 ± 4.9‰) indicate that contemporaneous seawater sulfate, modified by bacterial sulfate reduction, was the single most important sulfur reservoir for barite deposition. Most importantly, δ ¹⁸O values suggest a lower temperature of formation for the Gamsberg deposit compared with the occurrences in the Aggeneys area, i.e. Swartberg-Tank Hill and Big Syncline. The obvious differences in temperature of formation are in good agreement with the Cu-rich, Ba-poor nature of the sulfide mineralization of the Aggeneys deposits vs the Cu-poor, Ba-rich character of the Gamsberg deposit. In conjunction with this, isotopic and petrographic arguments favor a sub-seafloor replacement model for the stratabound barite occurrences of the Aggeneys deposits, while at Gamsberg, deposition at the sediment–water interface as a true sedimentary exhalite appears more likely.     

南非维特沃特斯兰德盆地绍斯迪普金矿床地质特征、成矿模式和找矿模型

对南非兰德砾岩型金矿床的研究成果进行总结,概括了绍斯迪普金矿床的区域地质背景、岩石地层划分,较为系统地分析了矿床的地质特征和矿床成因。 得出如下结论：①金的主要来源可能与太古宙含金花岗绿岩带有密切关系;②金矿体主要受太古宙文特斯多普砾岩地层和中兰德群中的Turffontein亚群埃尔斯伯格组砾岩地层控制;③金矿床可能经历了早期沉积成岩成矿阶段—后期改造富集多个（Klipriviersberg火山活动作用时期和与2050Ma布什维尔德杂岩体有关的变质作用高峰时期）阶段,为复合成因的层控改造型矿床。研究结果对该类矿床的深入研究和走出去的中国企业有重要的参考价值。     

南非维特沃特斯兰德盆地绍斯迪普金矿床地质特征、成矿模式和找矿模型

对南非兰德砾岩型金矿床的研究成果进行总结,概括了绍斯迪普金矿床的区域地质背景、岩石地层划分,较为系统地分析了矿床的地质特征和矿床成因。得出如下结论:1金的主要来源可能与太古宙含金花岗绿岩带有密切关系;2金矿体主要受太古宙文特斯多普砾岩地层和中兰德群中的Turffontein亚群埃尔斯伯格组砾岩地层控制;3金矿床可能经历了早期沉积成岩成矿阶段—后期改造富集多个(Klipriviersberg火山活动作用时期和与2050Ma布什维尔德杂岩体有关的变质作用高峰时期)阶段,为复合成因的层控改造型矿床。研究结果对该类矿床的深入研究和走出去的中国企业有重要的参考价值。     

Deconstructing the Transvaal Supergroup, South Africa: implications for Palaeoproterozoic palaeoclimate models

Current correlations between the Pretoria and Postmasburg Groups of the Transvaal Supergroup are shown to be invalid. The Postmasburg Group is also demonstrated to be broadly conformable with the underlying Ghaap Group and therefore considerably older (2.4 Ga) than previously supposed. The new stratigraphy documents an extensive (100 Ma) and continuous cold-climate episode with a glacial maximum at the Makganyene Formation diamictite. Iron formations of the underlying Asbesheuwels and Koegas Subgroups and overlying Hotazel Formation have similar origins, related, respectively, to the onset and cessation of the glacial event. This interpretation of the Transvaal Supergroup stratigraphy has significant implications for various Palaeoproterozoic environmental models and for the timing of the development of an oxygenated atmosphere.