Terpenoid composition and origin of amber from the Cape York Peninsula,Australia

The terpenoid composition of fossil resin from the Cape York Peninsula, Australia has been analysed by pyrolysis-gas chromatography-mass spectrometry (Py-GC-MS) to determine its origin. The pyrolysis products were dominated by cadalene-based C₁₅ bicyclic sesquiterpenoids including some C₃₀–C₃₁ bicadinanes and bicadinenes typical of Class II resin derived from angiosperm plants of Dipterocarpaceae. This observation contrasts with the Araucariaceae (Agathis sp.) source previously suggested for the resin based on Fourier transform infrared (FTIR) analyses. Dipterocarpaceae are not known in Australian vegetation but grow abundantly in Southeast Asia including New Guinea, indicating that the geological origin of the amber is not the Australian mainland but could be traced to Southeast Asia.     

The nature and origin of sesquiterpenoids in some tertiary fossil resins

Analyses of two Tertiary fossil resins and a Tertiary montan wax have revealed the presence of a number of sesquiterpenoids. Using gas chromatographic retention data obtained on both polar and non-polar stationary phases and mass spectral comparisons with authentic compounds, the sesquiterpenoids α-cedrene, cedrane, cuparene, cedren-10-one, 8βH cedran-9-one and cuparenic acid have been identified in the fossil resin retinellite and a montain wax (both Oligocene) from lignite beds in the Bovey basin of Devon, England, and in the Pliocene fossil resin ionite from the lone valley of California. U.S.A.The sesquiterpenoids α-cedrene, cuparene and cuparenic acid are characteristic constituents of the essential oils of the Cupressaceae, a family of trees and shrubs of the order Coniferales, and it is argued that these fossil resins, and the montan wax, were derived from older forms of this family of plants. The ketones cedren-10-one and 8βH cedran-9-one, and the saturated hydrocarbon cedrane, are not reported to be constituents of modern genera of Cupressaceae and may have been formed during diagenesis. The cedrane occurring in these deposits appears to be a chemical hydrogenation product of α-cedrene. The ketones, on the other hand, may have resulted from the oxidation of α-cedrene although the mechanism of these reactions is not clear. If the ketones are not undetected constituents of these plants, then the presence in these deposits of both oxidised and fully-reduced α-cedrene products infers that separate phases of oxidation and reduction occurred during the diagenesis of the fossil resins and the montan wax.     

The molecular composition of ambers

Bulk (elemental composition, IR, CP/MAS ¹³C NMR) and molecular (GC-MS) analyses have been performed on a series of ambers and resins derived from different locations (Dominican Republic, Philippines, Canada, Israel, New Zealand, Chile) having diverse botanical affinities (Araucariaceae, Hymenaea) and variable age (from Holocene to Early Cretaceous). No major differences have been observed from the elemental composition and the spectroscopic data; however, the molecular analyses of the solvent extractable fraction show that a specific mixture of components is present in each sample. These are mainly diterpenoid products that in general are also found abundantly in the higher plants from which the ambers and resins originate. Nevertheless, a direct relationship between major terpenoid constituents in fossil resins and precursor plant materials can only be established for the younger samples.Irrespective of the geographical or botanical origin of the ambers and resins, several common age-dependent molecular transformation trends can be recognized: (1) progressive loss of olefinic bonds (especially those located in exocyclic positions), (2) decrease of functionalized products, and (3) increasing proportion of aromatized components. However, even in the samples of older age (Cretaceous) the degree of aromatization is very low when compared with that of other higher-plant related materials such as fossilized woods or low rank coals. This indicates that maturation must involve essentially olefin polymerization processes instead of extensive aromatization.     

The geochemistry of exinites—1. Evaluation of spectral fluorescence of a series of modern resins and fossil resinites

A series of six fossil resins and four modern resins have been analysed using microscope-based spectral fluorescence methods, in addition to a preliminary study of the chemical composition of these samples using infrared spectroscopy and pyrolysis-gas chromatography. This study illustrates problems encountered during the measurement of spectral fluorescence of resins and resinite kerogens using conventional microscopy methods. Most notable, alteration of fluorescence significantly influences spectral measurements. Further, fossilized resins within rocks are complex mixtures of resinite and bitumen. Pre-extraction of resinites prior to petrographic analysis resulted in somewhat more uniform spectral fluorescence results.Spectral fluorescence of recent resins used in this study could be used to distinguish angiosperm from gymnosperm derived resinite kerogens. Distinction of plant class source of resinite kerogens, however, is more difficult using this method and is considered genarally unreliable.     

A resin nodule in the Cretaceous Garschella Formation from Langer Köchel (Bavaria, S Germany): possible origin and palaeogeographic provenance

A resin nodule was found in glauconite-rich detrital sediments of the Cretaceous Garschella Formation (Aptian to Albian) outcropping at Langer Köchel (Bavaria, S Germany). Gas chromatographic and mass spectrometric analyses of the fossil resin revealed dealkylation and the total defunctionalisation of its polycyclic constituents. Besides many unspecific components a specific one, agathalene, has survived. Agathalene also presents a strongly degraded product, but may have been derived from its natural precursor agathic acid, which is a very specific constituent (biomarker) of recent and fossil kauri resin. Although agathalene is a far less specific secondary biomarker, it indicates the botanic origin of the fossil resin nodule. Besides other potential producers of agathic acid, precursors of the present-day conifer species Agathis dammara and A. australis were distributed in a wider palaeophytogeographic range than today and might have been the botanical source of kauri resin. In view of the east–west directed Early Cretaceous surface current system of the Tethys ocean, the palaeogeographic provenance of the Werdenfels resin nodule probably was a mainland positioned further to the east or southeast of the Helvetic shelf, to where it was transported probably by driftwood of the resin-producing Agathis sp.     

Possible animal body fossils from the Late Neoproterozoic interglacial successions in the Kimberley region, northwestern Australia

New specimens of the enigmatic Ediacara-type fossil Palaeopascichnus have been identified from the upper part of the Neoproterozoic Ranford Formation in the Kimberley region, northwest Australia. New material is morphologically similar to Palaeopascichnus and represents the largest species of this genus. They resemble the present-day xenophyophore protists in chamber morphology and growth patterns, supporting the interpretation that Palaeopascichnus is possibly a xenophyophore body fossil rather than a trace fossil. Stratigraphic correlation reveals that the new Palaeopascichnus specimens are preserved in the interglacial successions between the Landrigan/Marinoan and Egan/Ediacaran glaciations. If correlation with the early Ediacaran formations of South Australia is accepted, this represents the earliest known identifiable member of the Ediacara biota. New fossil record fills the evolutionary gap between the Cryogenian and Ediacaran animal assemblages and well-known Ediacaran biota. The new Palaeopascichnus specimens represent the first record of Ediacara-type fossils in Kimberley, and suggest the probability that additional Ediacaran fossils may be found in northwestern Australia.     

PETROCHEMICAL STUDY OF THE CENOZOIC BASALTIC ROCKS IN EASTERN CHINA (PART 1 OF 2)

New types of carbonaceous filamentous microstructures have been identified in silica veins at two new localities in the ～3.5 Ga North Pole area of Western Australia. Their carbon isotopic compositions were measured in situ by secondary-ion mass spectrometry. The carbonaceous filaments are ～1μm wide, 10 to 100 μm long, and are permineralized in a fine-grained (～1 μm) silica matrix. They are morphologically divided into three types (i.e., spiral, threadlike, and branched filaments). Their sizes and morphologies resemble modern and previously reported fossil bacteria. These similarities and their complex three-dimensional geometry suggest that they may represent morphologically preserved fossil bacteria. δ¹³C values of the carbonaceous filaments range from ?42 to ?32‰, which strongly suggest that they are composed of biologically fixed organic compounds, possibly via the reductive acetyl-CoA pathway or the Calvin cycle. This is consistent with the hypothesis that autotrophs already existed on the Archean Earth.     

6种不同产地柯巴树脂的谱学特征探究

收集了来自俄罗斯、新西兰、婆罗洲、马达加斯加、哥伦比亚和苏门答腊6个不同产地的柯巴树脂,采用宝石显微镜、红外光谱、紫外荧光观察和三维荧光光谱等测试方法对柯巴树脂谱学特征进行了对比研究。婆罗洲、苏门答腊柯巴树脂的红外光谱主要特征为存在3000~2800 cm^-1范围内4个吸收峰,1732 cm^-1肩峰和1708 cm^-1吸收峰,888 cm^-1处的弱吸收峰。新西兰柯巴树脂红外光谱主要特征为存在3000~2800 cm^-1范围内3个吸收峰,1642 cm^-1和888 cm^-1处的弱吸收峰。马达加斯加、哥伦比亚和俄罗斯柯巴树脂的红外光谱相似,主要特征为存在与C=C相关的3处组合特征吸收峰以及1270 cm^-1和1180 cm^-1处的2个吸收峰。在长波紫外荧光下,婆罗洲和新西兰柯巴树脂荧光强度明显强于其他产地样品,马达加斯加柯巴树脂荧光强度最弱。由三维荧光光谱可知,婆罗洲和苏门答腊柯巴树脂中存在445、474、505 nm 3个发射峰,可被416、447 nm波长有效激发;新西兰柯巴树脂的最强发射峰位于385 nm,其最佳激发波长352 nm;俄罗斯柯巴树脂最强发射峰在399 nm,可被354 nm波长最佳激发;哥伦比亚柯巴树脂的最强发射峰为470 nm,被400 nm波长最佳激发;马达加斯加柯巴树脂的最强荧光峰在465 nm,被378 nm波长最佳激发。综合分析认为,三维荧光光谱特征和红外光谱特征可为柯巴树脂的鉴别和分类提供依据。     

Evidence for geographic variation in the diets of late Pleistocene and early Holocene Bison in North America, and differences from the diets of recent Bison

During the late Pleistocene and early Holocene, Bison was widely dispersed across North America and occupied most regions not covered by ice sheets. A dietary study on Bison paleopopulations from Alaska, New Mexico, Florida, and Texas was performed using two methods that relate dental wear patterns to diet, mesowear analysis and microwear analysis. These data were compared to a mixed sample of extant Bison from the North American central plains, extant wood Bison from Alberta (Canada) and a variety of other modern ungulates. Mesowear relates macroscopic molar facet shape to levels of dietary abrasion. The mesowear signature observed on fossil Bison differs significantly from the hyper-abrasive grazing diet of extant Bison. Tooth microwear examines wear on the surface of enamel at a microscopic scale. The microwear signal of fossil samples resembles to modern Bison, but the fossil samples show a greater diversity of features, suggesting that fossil Bison populations regularly consumed food items that are texturally inconsistent with the short-grass diet typical of modern plains Bison. Mesowear and microwear signals of fossil Bison samples most closely resemble a variety of typical mixed feeding ungulates, all with diets that are substantially less abrasive than what is typical for modern plains Bison. Furthermore, statistical tests suggest significant differences between the microwear signatures of the fossil samples, thus revealing geographic variability in Pleistocene Bison diets. This study reveals that fossils are of value in developing an understanding of the dietary breadth and ecological versatility of species that, in recent times, are rare, endangered, and occupy only a small remnant of their former ranges.     

A New Fossil Termite(Isoptera,Stolotermitidae,Stolotermes)from the Early Miocene of Otago,New Zealand

<正>The forewing of a termite from Early Miocene lake sediments in Otago,southern New Zealand is figured and described.It exhibits the generic characters of the damp-wood termite Stolotermes Hagen,but differs from forewings of the known species in size and venation pattern and is described as Stolotermes kupe sp.nov.S.kupe represents the first confident record of fossil Stolotermitidae and extends the fossil record of the family back to the Early Miocene.It also is the first direct evidence of fossil Isoptera from New Zealand,though silicified termite faecal pellets,referable to Kalotermes brauni,have been previously described.S.kupe indicates that Stolotermitidae has been present in the Australasian region since at least the Early Miocene.     

Identification of some diterpenoid hydrocarbons in petroleum

19-Norisopimarane and isopimarane have been synthesized from isopimara-9(11), 15-diene-3β, 19-diol. Analysis of the alkane fractions of an Australian crude oil by GC-MS showed the presence of nine diterpenoid hydrocarbons (diterpanes), of which one was bicyclic two were tricyclic and six were tetracyclic.19-Norisopimarane and isopimarane were identified by comparison of their mass spectra and GC retention times with those of the synthetic standards. ent-Beyerane, 16a(H)-phyllocladane, 16)β(H)-phyllocladane, ent-16α(H)-kaurane and labdane were also identified by comparison with authentic reference compounds. The remaining two compounds were tentatively identified as rimuane and as a 17-nortetracyclic diterpane on the basis of mass spectral evidence. The diterpanes are probably derived from conifer resins.     

On the present habitats and ecology of Vertigo pseudosubstriata Ložek, 1954 (Mollusca,Gastropoda, Vertiginidea) in Central Asia and its distribution history in Central and Eastern Europe

The small terrestrial gastropod Vertigo pseudosubstriata Ložek, 1954 is one of the rarest glacial indicator species in the Pleistocene of Central and Eastern Europe. In all, this species has been found at only about 15 sites in Europe. V. pseudosubstriata was initially described as a fossil in Central Europe and was discovered only later alive in Central Asia. With regard to its modern distribution, 25 habitats with V. pseudosubstriata have been examined in Tien Shan and in the central and southern Altai. These findings seem to capture the contemporary distribution of the species and provide information on the boundaries of its ecological requirements. These data are of great significance for the interpretation of the fossil assemblages. Since the few fossil specimens in Europe date from very different glacial periods in the Elsterian, Saalian Complex and Weichselian, it can be concluded that V. pseudosubstriata apparently immigrated in at least three distinct waves. Most of the Pleistocene specimens in eastern Central Europe and Eastern Europe are reported from archaeological sites of the Upper Middle Weichselian (Gravettian), roughly between 33 and 29 ka cal bp. In this paper, we review all reported modern and fossil occurrences and discuss the species' ecological range.     

Origin of sandplains in Western Australia: A review of the debate and some recent findings

Views on the origin of sandplains in Western Australia remain controversial with debate focusing around three different models of formation. These are in situ, aeolian and in situ formation with local remobilisation by wind or colluvial transport. The only recent work on the subject to date espouses a dominantly aeolian origin. New work from a detailed study on the Victoria Plateau is described and demonstrates the applicability of utilising a range of evidence in understanding the origin of sandplains in Western Australia. Field investigations show a strong association of sandplain with sandstone and an absence of sand on non‐arenaceous geology in similar and adjacent topographic settings. Grainsize, mineral magnetic analysis and heavy‐mineral spectra show the Victoria Plateau to be a heterogeneous body of sand. These findings coupled with a lack of internal sedimentary structures are not consistent with an aeolian origin for the sandplain. Furthermore, scanning electron microscopy, grainsize and heavy minerals also demonstrate a clear link between bedrock and overlying sandplain. These data support the hypothesis that Western Australian sandplains are mostly the product of in situ weathering. Such findings question whether the origin of sandplains can be satisfactorily deduced without such a range of data.     

Late Pleistocene paleoecology of arctic ground squirrel (Urocitellus parryii) caches and nests from Interior Alaska's mammoth steppe ecosystem, USA

Botanical analyses of fossil and modern arctic ground squirrel (Urocitellus parryii) caches and nests have been used to reconstruct the past vegetation from some parts of Beringia, but such archives are understudied in Alaska. Five modern and four fossil samples from arctic ground squirrel caches and nests provide information on late Pleistocene vegetation in Eastern Beringia. Modern arctic ground squirrel caches from Alaska's arctic tundra were dominated by willow and grass leaves and grass seeds and bearberries, which were widespread in the local vegetation as confirmed by vegetation surveys. Late Pleistocene caches from Interior Alaska were primarily composed of steppe and dry tundra graminoid and herb seeds. Graminoid cuticle analysis of fossil leaves identified Calamagrostis canadensis, Koeleria sp. and Carex albonigra as being common in the fossil samples. Stable carbon isotopes analysis of these graminoid specimens indicated that plants using the C₃ photosynthetic pathways were present and functioning with medium to high water-use efficiency. Fossil plant taxa and environments from ground squirrel caches in Alaska are similar to other macrofossil assemblages from the Yukon Territory, which supports the existence of a widespread mammoth steppe ecosystem type in Eastern Beringia that persisted throughout much of the late Pleistocene.     

Palaeoenvironment and biogeography of a late MIS 3 fossil beetle fauna from South Taranaki,New Zealand

Fossil beetles from a last glacial landslide‐generated lake‐forest sequence aged 33 480–34 410 cal. yr BP (late Marine Isotope Stage 3 (MIS 3)) are identified from the Waitotara Valley in South Taranaki, North Island, New Zealand. The stratigraphy indicates that the landslide caused changes to local hydrology, resulting in the formation of a lake‐swamp environment and subsequent transition to forest. Fossil leaves suggest a forest dominated by Nothofagus menziesii, and radiocarbon ages indicate the site was forested for around 4000 yr. A fossil beetle‐based temperature estimate using the maximum likelihood envelope method indicates the climate was cooler than present day. The distributions of the fossil beetle taxa are examined and compared with the modern ecological patterns. The fossil fauna is very typical of a modern‐day Nelson (northern South Island) fauna. None of the beetle species is present in the modern South Taranaki fauna and many taxa such as Platypus caviceps, Alema paradoxa, Rhyzobius consors, Syrphetodes ater, Cyclaxyra impressa and species of Grynoma and Pycnomerus are now absent from part or all of the lower North Island. This is important because the lower North Island is currently an area of low diversity and endemism and these results suggest this biogeographical pattern stems from the last glaciation. Copyright © 2008 John Wiley & Sons, Ltd.     

Quaternary corals from reefs in the Wakatobi Marine National Park,SE Sulawesi,Indonesia, show similar growth rates to modern corals from the same area

We have used digital photography, image analysis and measurements in the field to determine the growth rates of Quaternary corals in the Wakatobi Marine National Park, Indonesia, and compared them to growth rates of similar corals in the same area. In the Quaternary deposits it was possible to measure the growth rates of two massive coral genera Porites and Favites. For each genus, the corals reworked from better‐illuminated upslope environments had higher growth rates than the in situ fossil corals. The calculated radial growth rates for the in situ Porites are slightly lower than, but of the same order of magnitude as, the modern Porites growing in 10 m water depth at Hoga (10.04 ± 3.34 mm yr^?1 ± 1 s.d.; n = 3) and Kaledupa (15.26 ± 4.83 mm yr^?1 ± 1 s.d.; n = 3). Sedimentation rates and underwater visibility are inferred to have been similar in the fossil site to that at the modern Kaledupa site. Decreasing light penetration due to increased water depth is inferred to have been a major influence on growth rates. The in situ massive corals with good growth banding are inferred to have grown in a comparable environment to modern Kaledupa and Hoga. The study highlights that it is possible to compare coral growth rates, and their influencing parameters, from modern and well‐preserved ancient examples. Copyright © 2006 John Wiley & Sons, Ltd.     

Generic distinguishing characteristics and stratigraphic ranges of fossil corallines: An update

Corallines or coralline algae are carbonate secreting and strongly calcified red algae of the order Corallinales of division Rhodophyta. Architecturally, the corallines have two groups, the nongeniculate and geniculate coralline forms. Corallines are used as a potential tool for paleoecology, paleoenvironments and paleobathymetry. Coralline algae are builder of porous and permeable carbonate reservoir rocks for hydrocarbon and reefs rich in hydrocarbon. The old approach, ca. prior to 1977, of taxonomy of fossil coralline genera has been replaced by the modern approach that established during the last decade using certain distinguishing features such as arrangement of basal filaments, cell fusions, conceptacle perforations and orientation of filaments around conceptacles of living corallines. The earliest confirmed fossil record of coralline algae is from the Hauterivian (Early Cretaceous) and from the Hauterivian to the Pleistocene 9 nongeniculate coralline genera, namely Distichoplax, Lithophyllum, Lithoporella, Lithothamnion, Mesophyllum, Neogoniolithon, Phymatolithon, Spongites and Sporolithon and 7 geniculate genera, viz. Amphiroa, Arthrocardia, Calliarthron, Corallina, Jania, Metagoniolithon and Subterraniphyllum having different stratigraphic ranges are unequivocally known as fossils. After 1977, we do not have a comprehensive publication giving the generic distinguishing characteristics and stratigraphic ranges of both nongeniculate and geniculate corallines. The present paper gives an update of distinguishing characteristics of fossil coralline algal genera and their stratigraphic ranges.     

Paleosol record of Neogene climate change in the Australian outback

Effects in Australia of a global spike of warm-wet climate during the middle Miocene (ca16 Ma) have been controversial, with one faction arguing for inland rain forest and the other faction for dry woodland. This question is here addressed using the Oligocene–Miocene sequence of fossil mammal localities at Lake Palankarinna, South Australia, which includes numerous paleosols that have been dated by paleomagnetism, palynology, biostratigraphy, and radiometric methods to straddle this paleoclimatic event. Paleosols of the Oligocene–Miocene Etadunna and Pliocene Tirari Formations formed in arid paleoclimates and include pedogenic gypsum. The Maralji paleosol, developed on early Miocene Etadunna Formation and overlain by late Miocene–Pliocene Mampuwordu Sands, is middle Miocene in age based on mammal fauna at correlative horizons in nearby Lake Ngapakaldi. The Maralji paleosol has shallow calcareous nodules and stout root traces suggesting vegetation like dry woodland (mallee). Mallee vegetation now grows no closer than 1200 km to the southwest, so middle Miocene warm-wet climate enabled range extension of mallee and woody thickening of plants in the Australia outback. There is no evidence in the outback of middle Miocene rain forest, which may have expanded its range to form kaolinitic Ultisols near Sydney, Mudgee and Gulgong, all in New South Wales. Nor is there evidence so far inland of swamp woodlands and heaths like those producing brown coals in the Latrobe Valley, Victoria.     

Quantitative interpretation of fossil pollen spectra: Dissimilarity coefficients and the method of modern analogs

Dissimilarity coefficients measure the difference between multivariate samples and provide a quantitative aid to the identification of modern analogs for fossil pollen samples. How eight coefficients responded to differences among modern pollen samples from eastern North America was tested. These coefficients represent three different classes: (1) unweighted coefficients that are most strongly influenced by large-valued pollen types, (2) equal-weight coefficients that weight all pollen types equally but can be too sensitive to variations among rare types, and (3) signal0to-noise coefficients that are intermediate in their weighting of pollen types. The studies with modern pollen allowed definition of critical values for each coefficient, which, when not exceeded, indicate that two pollen samples originate from the same vegetation region. Dissimilarity coefficients were used to compare modern and fossil pollen samples, and modern samples so similar to fossil samples were found that most of three late Quaternary pollen diagrams could be “reconstructed” by substituting modern samples for fossil samples. When the coefficients indicated that the fossil spectra had no modern analogs, then the reconstructed diagrams did not match all aspects of the originals. No modern analogs existed for samples from before 9300 yr B.P. at Kirchner Marsh, Minnesota, and from before 11,000 yr B.P. at Wintergreen Lake, Michigan, but modern analogs existed for almost all Holocene samples from these two sites and Brandreth Bog. New York.