Conservation status of New Zealand freshwater fish, 2009

The threat status of 74 freshwater and estuarine fish present in New Zealand was determined. Fifty-one native taxa were ranked of which 67% were considered Threatened or At Risk. A single species was classified as Extinct, the New Zealand grayling, which has not been observed since the 1920s. Four taxa were classified in the highest threat category, Nationally Critical, and a further 10 taxa as Threatened (Nationally Endangered or Nationally Vulnerable). Twenty taxa were ranked in the At Risk group with the majority ranked as Declining. Endemic galaxiids (Galaxiidae) dominated the Threatened and At Risk taxa. The majority (68%) belonged to the Galaxias genus, comprising 81% of recognised taxa in this genus and all five species in the genus Neochanna were also ranked as Threatened or At Risk. In addition to 51 native taxa, a further three fish species were considered colonists and 20 introduced species were classified as naturalised, although two of these are considered rare. The majority of the Threatened species occur in the Canterbury and Otago regions where a suite of rare non-migratory galaxiids exist. Threat mechanisms that were identified as causal in the decline of freshwater fish species were the impact of introduced fish species, declining water quality, effects of water abstraction, loss of habitat via land-use change and land-use activities, and river modifications.     

What is an endangered species worth? Threshold costs for protecting imperilled fishes in Canada

The protection of imperilled fish species is increasingly urgent given ongoing fisheries declines and the degradation of aquatic habitats. In Canada, threatened aquatic species were less likely than terrestrial species to be listed under the Species at Risk Act (SARA), the main legal instrument for bestowing protection, in the early years of the Act's implementation. In this paper, the existence of economic thresholds that might have hampered the protection of Canadian marine and freshwater fishes is examined. The analysis of the socio-economic data used to inform listing decisions about threatened fish taxa over the past decade reveals that the likelihood of being listed declines non-linearly with increasing estimated costs of protection but does not vary with proposed threat status. The estimated threshold cost (i.e., the point at which the likelihood of not being listed=0.5) was ∼$5,000,000 (∼$1,400,000 to ∼$31,400,000, 95% CI) per decade for freshwater species but only ∼$90,000 ($∼50,000 to ∼$140,000, 95% CI) per decade for marine fish taxa. In fact, no marine fish species with an anticipated cost of listing greater than zero was listed for protection. The presence of existing management legislation and qualitative statements about negative impacts of listing on exploitation generally led to denying protection to marine but not to freshwater species. These findings highlight both a large and inconsistent emphasis on costs of protection in SARA listing decisions, to the detriment of marine fish species.     

Marine aquarium trade in India: Challenges and opportunities for conservation and policy

The collection of marine taxa for the aquarium trade continues to demand live animals be extracted from reefs, but in doing so, offers economic benefits for local communities. To improve our understanding of the status of marine aquariumtrade in India, information on harvested species and their volume was gathered at the major collection hubs (Tuticorin, Kilakarai and Mandapam) in the Gulf of Mannar region, and compared to the export data. During one year, 87 species of fish (51% belonging to the family Pomacentridae) and 21 species of invertebrates were harvested for the trade. The conservation status of exploited species revealed that nearly 50% (n=43) have not been assessed for their extinction risk by the IUCN, while of the 44 species assessed, 41 were Least Concern (LC), and one each was in the Data Deficient (DD), Near Threatened (NT) and Endangered (EN) categories. While many fish were collected, only a few were exported from India. The sea anemones were the major export as they were of a higher value in the international markets, largely attributed to their color patterns. Price discrepancies within the trade value of marine fishes and invertebrates used for the aquarium trade indicated that price increased approximately 200% at each transition in the value chain (collectors to wholesalers, wholesalers to retailers). Management strategies and conservation plans for India's marine ornamental taxa subjected to exploitation are provided so as to ensure long-term sustainability of the coral reef ecosystems, as well as the livelihood that are dependent on them.     

Anthropogenic threat assessment of marine-associated fauna in Spencer Gulf,South Australia

Assessing the vulnerability of species to [anthropogenic threats is an essential step when developing management strategies for wild populations. With industrial development forecasted to increase in Spencer Gulf, South Australia, it is crucial to assess the ongoing effects of anthropogenic threats to resident and migratory species. Expert elicitation was used to assess 27 threats against 38 threatened, protected, and iconic marine-associated species. Species and threat interactions were assessed individually, and as taxonomic or functional groups. Climate change had the greatest overall exposure (c.f. risk) across species, followed by disturbance, pollution, disease/invasive species, and fishing/aquaculture threats. The largest overall sensitivities (c.f. consequences) were pollution and disease/invasive species, followed by climate change, disturbance and fishing/aquaculture threats. Vulnerability scores (exposure x sensitivity) showed the climate change group posing the greatest overall threat in Spencer Gulf, with individual climatic threats ranking as three of the top four biggest threats to most animal groups. Noise, shipping, and net fishing were considered the greatest region-specific individual threats to marine mammals; as were trawl fishing, line fishing, and coastal activities to fish/cuttlefish; trawl fishing, line fishing, and net fishing to elasmobranchs; and oil spill, disease, and coastal activities to sea/shorebirds. Eighteen of the 20 highest vulnerability scores involved the short-beaked common dolphin, Indo-Pacific bottlenose dolphin, and Australian sea lion, highlighting the particular susceptibility of these species to specific threats. These findings provide a synthesis of key threats and vulnerable species, and give management a basis to direct future monitoring and threat mitigation efforts in the region.     

Species at risk in Canada: Lessons learned from the listing of three species of wolffish

The Canadian Species at Risk Act (SARA) was implemented in 2003. Since 2003, no fully marine Atlantic Canadian fish species has been listed and some observers are seriously questioning the extent to which SARA is effectively protecting marine fish species. Three species of wolffish found in North Atlantic waters were placed onto the SARA list in 2003 when it was implemented. The Committee on the Status of Endangered Wildlife in Canada (COSEWIC) originally listed these species in 2000 and 2001. The COSEWIC listings were based on catch-rate trends over large spatial scales from a relatively short time series of offshore research vessel survey data and status reports derived from research for an honours thesis. This case study of the wolffish listings draws on results from semi-structured interviews with key informants familiar with the listing and post-listing events, an analysis of existing documents and research on the SARA process, and on data from wolffish-focused Local Ecological Knowledge (LEK) interviews with commercial fish harvesters in the Northern Gulf of St. Lawrence. The results shed light on the wolffish listing process including perceptions of how the implementation of SARA has affected the process and prospects for listing fully marine species. The post-SARA listing developments in relation to wolffish, including harvesters' views about the listing are also explored. The results indicate mixed views about the benefits and problems associated with the requirement for public consultations and incorporation of stakeholder knowledge into the listing process under SARA. There is some evidence that the wolffish listing process has increased harvester stewardship and engagement and benefitted from their input into the safe release of wolffish. Finally, little attention has been paid by any of the stakeholder groups consulted to the potential future delisting of wolffish, arguably the most important goal of species conservation initiatives. Without delisting requirements or timelines set out in a species recovery plan it is impossible to establish concrete guidelines for recovery.     

Balanced harvesting: The institutional incompatibilities

Balanced harvesting is the name of a newly proposed approach to fishing which promises the extraction of high and sustainable fisheries yields while maintaining the structure of the ecosystem from which those yields could be obtained. This is to be achieved through exposing all components of ecosystems (from zooplankton to top predators, including seals, sea birds and marine mammals) to a fishing mortality proportional to their size-specific productivity. This study briefly analyses the incompatibility between balanced harvesting (and its implications) and the stated missions of two major organizations, FAO (which stresses the need of selective fishing in its Code of Conduct for Sustainable Fisheries) and IUCN (which maintains the Red List of Threatened Species), but which have issued reports or organized conferences promoting balanced harvesting. The study also demonstrates the incompatibility of balanced harvesting with the recently reformed Common Fisheries Policy of the European Union. While balanced harvesting appears partly compatible with declared fisheries policies of a few countries, e.g. with regard to whaling, sealing, and indiscriminate biomass fishing, it is not only incompatible with the basic tenets of fisheries science, but also with the vision, gradually emerging globally, that marine organisms such as marine mammals, sea turtles, sea-birds and other fauna have an intrinsic value and right to life that should not be undermined by more of the indiscriminate fishing which currently shapes much of our interactions with the oceans.     

Photo-identification of bottlenose dolphins in the far south of New Zealand indicates a ‘new’, previously unstudied population

Declines in the abundance of bottlenose dolphins in the Bay of Islands and in Doubtful Sound have contributed to the species being classified as Nationally Endangered in New Zealand waters. Updated information on distribution and abundance nationwide is therefore a high priority. This study presents data from the first photo-identification surveys of Paterson Inlet, Stewart Island, conducted to document bottlenose dolphin presence, abundance and residency. Open-population mark-recapture models indicate that 18 (95%CI = 15–20) dolphins regularly use Paterson Inlet. Photo-identification of dolphins from unknown populations during two chance encounters in Otago Harbour and Dusky Sound included 11 individuals previously identified at Stewart Island. These results indicate that dolphins found regularly at Stewart Island are part of a larger, wide ranging southern population with a minimum population abundance of 92 (95%CI = 80–111) individuals.     

福建海洋兽类及其分布

通过对在福建沿海地下发掘出土的海兽骨骼，古文献比较分析研究，提出了福建省古代７种海兽分布名录；依据采集和调查到的现生海兽标本，提出了福建省１８种海兽的种类和分布。     

Spatial and temporal assessment of potential risk to cetaceans from static fishing gears

Ecosystem Based Fisheries Management (EBFM) requires the consideration of potential impacts of a commercial fishery on all components of the ecosystem. Assessment of the impact of commercial fishing on marine mammals generally focuses on species at known risk from bycatch. For cetaceans in particular, inclusion under the Threatened, Endangered and Protected (TEP) species component of Ecological Risk Assessment for the Effects of Fishing (ERAEF) can seem redundant if a species is already known to be at risk or is not thought to interact with the fishery with consequences for its conservation. A spatially and temporally explicit Productivity Susceptibility Analysis (PSA) procedure was developed for inclusion under ERAEF to allow cetacean species to be screened for risk. The technique is demonstrated by assessing the potential risk to harbour porpoise and minke whales from a number of static gear fisheries. The results demonstrate that although a fishery might pose high risk to a species, low or moderate risk areas can exist within the range of the fishery, enabling management measures to focus on areas of greatest risk. Designed to complement and support existing methods of bycatch assessment, this approach is a repeatable and standardised assessment, the outputs of which can be used to systematically document the level of risk posed to different species in a transparent way to aid the inclusion of cetaceans in ERAEF and EBFM both now and in the future.     

Analysis of occurrence patterns and biological factors of cetaceans based on long‐term and fine‐scale data from platforms of opportunity: Madeira Island as a case study

Management and conservation issues are addressed through the identification of areas of particular importance, which requires the acquisition of baseline information on species distribution and dynamics. These types of data are particularly difficult to obtain at high resolution for large marine vertebrates like cetaceans, given that dedicated surveys are complex and logistically expensive. This study uses daily presence–absence sighting data of cetaceans collected year‐round from whale‐watching boats to support the theory that fine‐scale data obtained from platforms of opportunity can provide valuable information on species occurrence and group dynamics. Data from 7,551 (daily) sightings comprising 22 species were collected from 3,527 surveyed days over 11 years (mean of 321 days per year, SD = 17) in the pelagic environment of Madeira Island. Cetaceans were observed on 92% of the surveyed days, and a mean of 15.4 (SD = 1.5), 8.2 (SD = 2.0) and 2.1 (SD = 1.2) species were recorded per year, month, and day, respectively. There were significant differences in the number of species per month (p < .001), with the highest diversity recorded in June. At least nine species, comprising 96% of all sightings, were found to use the Madeiran waters on a regular basis, such as the Atlantic spotted dolphin (Stenella frontalis), the short‐beaked common dolphin (Delphinus delphis), the bottlenose dolphin (Tursiops truncatus), and others featured in the Red List of the International Union for Conservation of Nature as Endangered, Vulnerable, and Data Deficient. In addition, 10 species were found to use the Madeiran waters for travelling, feeding, resting, socializing and calving, which suggests that the southern and southeastern waters of Madeira Island constitute an area of interest for cetaceans. This study characterizes the cetaceans’ community structure (occurrence, aggregation sizes, behaviours, proportion of calves, and inter‐specific relationships) of a poorly studied region, providing important information for managers. Finally, the advantages and limitations of using fine‐scale data from a type of platform of opportunity that is increasing along coastlines globally are discussed.     

CPOD successful in trial for detecting Māui dolphin outside harbours

Critically endangered Māui dolphin (Cephalorhynchus hectori maui) are found exclusively off the west coast of New Zealand’s North Island. One important data gap troubling efforts to reduce the current unsustainable level of bycatch is the limited information on the offshore and alongshore limits of their range. Passive acoustic monitoring studies could address this data gap, but Māui dolphin habitat is dominated by a sandy substrate that can shift greatly in the strong local currents. In February 2016, a short pilot CPOD deployment was thus attempted as a first step to see if the equipment could be deployed and recovered in the area and if the data collected would be viable, with a second unit deployed inside a harbour for comparison with earlier TPOD data. The pilot was largely successful, and roughly 11% of all minutes in the core habitat location contained detections of clicks attributed to Māui dolphin. A visual inspection of the data suggests some trends with diel and tidal patterns. Further work of this type is thus recommended.     

Habitat modification in tidepools by bioeroding sea urchins and implications for fine‐scale community structure

By creating novel habitats, habitat‐modifying species can alter patterns of diversity and abundance in marine communities. Many sea urchins are important habitat modifiers in tropical and temperate systems. By eroding rocky substrata, urchins can create a mosaic of urchin‐sized cavities or pits separated by exposed, often flat surfaces. These microhabitats appear to harbor distinct assemblages of species. We investigated how a temperate rocky intertidal community uses three small‐scale (<100 cm²) microhabitats created by or adjacent to populations of the purple sea urchin (Strongylocentrotus purpuratus): pits occupied by urchins, unoccupied pits, and adjacent flat spaces. In tidepools, flat spaces harbored the highest percent cover of algae and sessile fauna, followed by empty pits and then occupied pits. The Shannon diversity and richness of these sessile taxa were significantly higher in flat spaces and empty pits than in occupied pits. The composition of these primary space holders in the microhabitats also varied. Unlike primary space holders, mobile fauna exhibited higher diversity and richness in empty pits than in flat spaces and occupied pits, although results were not significant. The protective empty pit microhabitat harbored the highest densities of most trophic functional groups. Herbivores, however, were densest in flat spaces, concordant with high algal coverage. These results suggest the habitats created by S. purpuratus in addition to its biological activities alter community structure at spatial scales finer than those typically considered for sea urchins.     

A review of marine mammal,sea turtle and seabird bycatch in USA fisheries and the role of policy in shaping management

This paper reviews the available information (observer programs, estimates, statutes, regulations) for bycatch of marine mammals, sea turtles, and seabirds in fisheries of the United States. Goals of the review were to evaluate the state of knowledge of bycatch and the role of existing protective legislation in shaping bycatch management for different taxa. Pressing issues are identified, as well as knowledge gaps and policy limitations that hinder multi-species bycatch reduction. The USA has made important progress toward reducing bycatch in its fisheries, but the efficacy of its management has been limited somewhat by a focus on taxon- and fishery-specific regulation and the lack of consistent mandate across taxa for taking a cumulative perspective on bycatch. Applying consistent criteria across taxa for setting bycatch limits (e.g., extending the approach used for marine mammals to sea turtles and seabirds) would be the first step in a multi-species approach to bycatch reduction. A population-based multi-species multi-gear approach to bycatch would help identify priority areas where resources are needed most and can be used most effectively.     

Resource partitioning among air‐breathing marine predators: are body size and mouth diameter the major determinants?

Although the body size of consumers may be a determinant factor in structuring food webs, recent evidence indicates that body size may fail to fully explain differences in the resource use patterns of predators in some situations. Here we compared the trophic niche of three sympatric and sexually dimorphic air‐breathing marine predators (the South American sea lion, Otaria flavescens, the South American fur seal, Arctocephalus australis, and the Magellanic penguin, Spheniscus magellanicus) in three areas of the Southwestern Atlantic Ocean (Río de la Plata and adjoining areas, Northern Patagonia and Southern Patagonia), in order to assess the importance of body size and mouth diameter in determining resource partitioning. Body weight and palate/bill breadth were used to characterize the morphology of each sex and species, whereas the trophic niche was assessed through the use of stable isotope ratios of carbon and nitrogen. The quantitative method Stable Isotope Bayesian Ellipses in R (SIBER) was used to compute the area of the Bayesian ellipses and the overlap of the isotopic niches. The results showed that morphological similarity was significantly correlated with isotopic distance between groups within the δ¹³C–δ¹⁵N bi‐plot space in the Río de la Plata area, but not in Northern and Southern Patagonia. Furthermore, resource partitioning between groups changed regionally, and some morphologically distinct groups exhibited a large trophic overlap in certain areas, such as the case of male penguins and male sea lions in Southern Patagonia. Conversely, female sea lions always overlapped with the much larger males of the same species, but never overlapped with the morphologically similar male fur seals. These results indicate that body size and mouth diameter are just two of the factors involved in resource partitioning within the guild of air‐breathing predators considered here, and for whom – under certain environmental conditions – other factors are more important than morphology.     

PCR‐based techniques to determine diet of the Australian sea lion (Neophoca cinerea): a comparison with morphological analysis

Comprehensive dietary information for the endangered Australian sea lion (Neophoca cinerea) is currently limited by the deficiency and poor quality of identifiable prey remains recovered from regurgitate and faeces and the difficulty of observing feeding in the wild. In this study, we investigated DNA‐based prey detection methods using conventional (end‐point) and quantitative real‐time PCR (qPCR) on faeces collected from two captive Australian sea lions fed experimental diets of whole teleost fish, squid and shark tissue. PCR prey detection methods using the mitochondrial cytochrome oxidase subunit I (COI) and 16S genes combined with clone sequencing were compared with prey identified using traditional hard part analysis. The molecular results indicated that prey DNA was degraded. However, prey amplification was successful by targeting short (71 bp) DNA fragments. Both conventional PCR and qPCR techniques significantly increased prey detection compared with analysis of hard parts. For both sea lions, the hard part analysis was constrained by sporadic and extremely low recovery of fish otoliths (<2%), and cephalopod beaks were not recovered from the 116 squid fed. Comparisons between PCR techniques indicated comparable prey detection frequencies for all species tested; however, the sensitivity and greater resolution of qPCR improved prey detection by ~25% in one sea lion fed the experimental squid and perch. The detection of squid DNA ≤ 6 day post‐ingestion by qPCR further exhibits the ability and potential of this method to detect low concentrations of infrequent or pulse prey. This study highlights the use of DNA‐based analysis to detect prey taxa in the absence of identifiable hard prey remains.     

鲸豚声信号实时采集与分析系统

本文设计了一套基于FPGA的鲸豚声信号实时数据采集与分析系统,在采集存储水族馆内声信号的同时,应用改进的HHT算法处理鲸豚叫声中的click信号,实现实时的甄别瓶鼻海豚和白鲸功能,可用于针对大型哺乳动物的远洋实时跟踪科考。     

Marine mammals from northeast Atlantic: relationship between their trophic status as determined by delta13C and delta15N measurements and their trace metal concentrations

The relationship between trophic position through delta13C and delta15N and trace metal concentrations (Zn, Cd, Cu and Hg) was investigated in the tissues of six marine mammal species from the Northeast Atlantic: striped dolphin Stenella coeruleoalba, common dolphin, Delphinus delphis, Atlantic white-sided dolphin Lagenorhynchus acutus, harbour porpoise Phocoena phocoena, white beaked-dolphin Lagenorhynchus albirostris, grey seal Halichoerus grypus stranded on French Channel and Irish coasts. White-beaked dolphins, harbour porpoises, white-sided dolphins, common and striped dolphins display the same relative and decreasing trophic position, as measured by delta15N values, along both the Irish and French channel coasts, reflecting conservative trophic habits between these two places. Hepatic and renal Cd concentrations were significantly correlated to muscle delta13C and delta15N values while Hg, Zn and Cu did not. These results suggest that Cd accumulation is partly linked to the diet while other factors such as age or body condition might explain Hg, Zn or Cu variability in marine mammals. Combined stable isotope and trace metal analyses appear to be useful tools for the study of marine mammal ecology.     

中国海及西太平洋生物分类研究进展及展望

分类学是现代生物学的基础学科,对海洋生物的分类认知是海洋生物多样性保护及资源利用的前提。我国的海洋生物分类学研究以中国近海为主,经过一个世纪尤其是近70年的发展,已基本认识了中国海域的生物种类构成和分布状况。近十年来,开展了规模不等的深海生物探测与取样,海洋生物分类研究拓展至深海。然而,总体上,我国不少海洋生物类群的分类研究还不充分,一些类群尚欠缺研究,仍有大量未知的生物待发现。本文以研究较为集中和系统的中国近海和西太平洋深海为主,概述了中国学者在海洋生物分类研究领域的总体进展,尤其是近十年来的进展。同时,结合国内外发展现状和趋势分析,就我国未来海洋生物分类学研究的开展,包括分类学科发展方向、平台建设、支撑体系等方面,提出一些想法和建议。     

Conservation status of New Zealand marine invertebrates, 2009

A re-evaluation of the threat status of New Zealand's marine invertebrates was undertaken in 2009, following earlier review of New Zealand's Threat Classification System and subsequent refinement of the national criteria for classifying threat of extinction to New Zealand's flora and fauna. Sufficient information was available to enable 295 marine invertebrate taxa to be fully evaluated and assigned to a national threat category. The 10 taxa at most risk of extinction (‘nationally critical’) were the giant seep clam Calyptogena sp., the primitive acorn barnacle Chionelasmus crosnieri, O'Shea's vent barnacle Volcanolepas osheai, the stalked barnacle Ibla idiotica, the four-blotched umbrella octopus Cirroctopus hochbergi, the roughy umbrella octopus Opisthoteuthis chathamensis, the giant squid Idioteuthis cordiformis, the large-egged polychaete Boccardiella magniovata and two gravel maggots, Smeagol climoi and Smeagol manneringi. The key threatening processes identified for marine invertebrates were fishing and land-use associated impacts such as sedimentation. We identified no taxa that had improved in threat status as a result of past or ongoing conservation management action, nor any taxa that had worsened in threat status because of known changes in their distribution, abundance or rate of population decline. We evaluated a small fraction of New Zealand's marine invertebrate fauna for their threat status. Many taxa remain ‘data deficient’ or unlisted. In addition to the most threatened taxa, we recommend these taxa and their habitats as priorities for further survey and monitoring.     

Long-term trends in cetacean occurrence during the annual sardine run off the Wild Coast,South Africa

During the austral winter, cetaceans and other apex predators follow the annual northeastward movement of shoaling sardines, known as the sardine run, along the southeast coast of South Africa, including a 400-km stretch called the Wild Coast. In total, 131 opportunistic aerial surveys were conducted between May and July, from 1996 to 2014, to monitor sardine movement. Cetacean-sighting data from these surveys were analysed, focusing on long-term trends in frequencies of the cetaceans. In total, 630 sightings involving five cetacean species were recorded: 268 (approximately 32 400 individuals) of Indo-Pacific bottlenose dolphin Tursiops aduncus, 108 (approximately 79 400 individuals) of long-beaked common dolphin Delphinus capensis, 242 (approximately 670 individuals) of humpback whale Megaptera novaeangliae, 1 (two individuals) of southern right whale Eubalaena australis, and 11 (16 individuals) of Bryde’s whale Balaenoptera edeni. The occurrence of common dolphins, typically associated with sardines, decreased significantly in average group size over the study period (p = 0.0343); bottlenose dolphins, considered generalist feeders, demonstrated no such trend (p = 0.916). Humpback whales were most frequently sighted between 2010 and 2014, and with significantly larger groups observed towards the end of the study period (p = 0.0121). For all these species, more sightings were made inside than outside of marine protected areas (>70% of the dolphin species, and >65% of the humpback whales), both pre- and post-2005 (from 2005 the size of the survey area increased). The results indicate that movements of the common dolphin may be employed as a proxy for sardine occurrence. Long-term trends evident in the data also demonstrate the importance of this coastal region for bottlenose dolphins as well as use as a migratory corridor for humpback whales.