Shade effects on stream periphyton and invertebrates: An experiment in streamside channels

Abstract

The effects of shade on periphyton and invertebrates were investigated by comparisons in 12 replicate channels beside a pasture stream where shade cloth reduced the photosynthetically available radiation (PAR) by 0, 60, 90, and 98%. Periphytic productivity decreased with increasing shade. Periphyton chlorophyll a was consistently low (< 30 mg m^?2) under 98 and 90% shade and usually low at 60% shade, whereas blooms were common during summer in the unshaded channels. More periphytic taxa occurred in the open than shaded channels and the relative concentration of the photo‐protective pigment beta‐carotene decreased with increasing shade. Nitrate uptake rates by periphyton, measured in separate chamber studies, decreased progressively as shade increased from 60% through 90% to 98%, and were more strongly correlated with gross primary productivity than periphyton chlorophyll a and particulate carbon levels. Total invertebrate and chironomid densities declined significantly as shade increased from 60 to 90% and invertebrate taxa richness declined markedly between 90 and 98% shade. Most collector‐browsing invertebrates (other than chironomids) had similar densities under 0–90% shade and only declined at 98%. This suggests a weak coupling of these invertebrates with local periphyton production and also suggests that energy derived from up‐stream sources may be their most important food in these pastoral streams.     

Food webs in forest and pasture streams in the Waikato region,New Zealand: A study based on analyses of stable isotopes of carbon and nitrogen,and fish gut contents

Abstract

Stable isotopes of carbon (C) and nitrogen (N) were studied in 11 stream communities in the Waikato region of New Zealand. From comparisons of mean δ¹³C and δ¹⁵N values, food webs in the shaded, forest streams were clearly based on allochthonous material (conditioned leaf litter and terrestrial invertebrates). Autotrophs in forest streams were not a significant C source for the food webs. However, the C source of food webs in the unshaded pasture streams appeared to be a mixture of allochthonous and autochthonous material. Conditioned leaf litter appeared to contribute to the pasture stream food webs, and the δ¹³C and δ¹⁵N of some samples of epilithic diatoms indicated their consumption by invertebrates in pasture streams. Fish ate a wide range of aquatic invertebrates; longfinned eels (Anguilla dieffenbachii) and banded kokopu (Galaxias fasciatus) also had a large proportion of terrestrial invertebrates in their diet. Filamentous green algae were found only at pasture sites, where they were sometimes abundant. The wide range of δ¹³C values of filamentous green algae (‐18.8 to ‐29.7‰) complicated understanding of their role in the stream food webs. The δ¹³C values of Cladophora were related to water velocity, with more ¹³C‐enriched values in pools than in runs (‐23.2‰ in pools, mean velocity 0.12 m s^?1; ‐28.1‰ in runs, mean velocity 0.24 m s^?1). Crayfish and the gastropod mollusc Potamopyrgus appeared to be the only invertebrates to eat filamentous green algae.     

Nitrogen and phosphorus in New Zealand streams and rivers: Control and impact of eutrophication and the influence of land management

Abstract

Given sufficient light and heat, the growth of aquatic macrophytes and algae associated with eutrophication is generally controlled by the concentration, form and ratio between nitrogen (N) and phosphorus (P). Data from 1100 freshwater sites monitored for the last 10 years by New Zealand's regional councils and unitary authorities were assessed for streams and rivers with mean nitrate/ nitrite‐N (NNN), dissolved reactive P (DRP), total N (TN) and total P (TP) concentrations in excess of New Zealand guidelines, and to generate a data set of N:P ratios to predict potential periphyton response according to the concentration of the limiting nutrient. The frequency of sites exceeding the guidelines varied from 0 to 100% depending on the parameter and region, but South Island regions were generally more compliant. The dissolved inorganic N (DIN) to dissolved reactive P (DRP) ratio was used to group data into three nutrient limitation classes: <7:1 (N‐limited), between 7:1 and 15:1 (co‐limited), and>15:l (P‐limited), by mass. P‐limitation was the most frequent scenario in New Zealand streams (overall, 76% of sites were P‐limited, 12% N‐limited, and 12% co‐limited). The mean concentration of the limiting nutrient for each site was combined with empirical relationships to predict periphyton densities (the average of N‐and P‐limited growth was used for sites with co‐limitation). This assessment predicted that 22 sites were likely to exceed the periphyton guideline for protecting benthic biodiversity (50 mg chlorophyll a m^?2), but this assessment is likely to be highly changeable in response to climatic conditions and present and future land use. As an example, we modelled N and P losses from an average sheep and a dairy farm in Southland (South Island, New Zealand) in 1958, 1988, 2008 and 2028. We predicted that with time, as farm systems have and continue to intensify, N losses increase at a greater rate than P losses. Since the pathway for N to reach fresh waters may be more tortuous and take longer than P to reach a stream or river, focusing mitigation on P losses may have a quicker effect on potential algal growth. In addition, with time, it is expected that P‐limitation in New Zealand's rivers and streams will be more widespread as N‐losses are unabated. Hence, although strategies to decrease N losses should be practised, mitigating P losses is also central to preventing eutrophication.     

The distribution of spiny lobsters in New Zealand waters (Crustacea: Decapoda: Palinuridae)

Two species of spiny lobsters (marine crayfish) inhabit New Zealand waters: Jasus edwardsii (Hutton, 1875), and J verreauxi (H. Milne Edwards, 1851). J edwardsii, the more common species, is present along most rocky coastlines in New Zealand, but is more abundant in the south‐west of the South Island and at the Chatham Islands. The species apparently reaches its northern limit of distribution at the Three Kings Islands (34°S) and its southern limit at the Auckland Islands (51°S).

J. verreauxi, the less common species, is almost solely restricted in New Zealand waters to the north‐east coast of the North Island. It is uncommon in the west and the south of the North Island, and is rare in the South Island. J. verreauxi apparently reaches its northern limit of distribution at the Kermadec Islands (31°S), and its southern limit near Bluff (47°S) in the South Island.     

First record of Lepidocybium flavobrunneum (Pisces: Gempylidae) from New Zealand

Lepidocybium flavobrunneum (Smith, 1849) is widespread in warmer oceanic waters and has recently been recorded in the catches of tuna longline vessels in the New Zealand region. Twenty‐five specimens were caught at 31°46′‐32°03′S, 170°49′‐171°11′ E on 23–27 June 1979, thus extending the known range of the species to northern New Zealand.     

The effect of willow control using a glyphosate formulation on aquatic invertebrates within a New Zealand wetland

Exotic trees, such as willow (Salix spp.), have become invasive around New Zealand waterways. Lowland wetlands in particular are vulnerable, with invasions changing hydrology and causing biodiversity loss. Applying herbicide to the willow canopy is a cost-effective control method, however uncertainty remains around effects on wetland aquatic invertebrates. Within a North Island, New Zealand, wetland, we conducted a paired before-after, control-impact study to determine if aerially applied glyphosate (with adjuvants) affected invertebrate assemblages. No effect on communities was detected during the first year after glyphosate treatment, however significant differences between control and spray-exposed communities were found during the second year, coinciding with a significant drought event in March 2013. By the third year, no statistically significant differences were found between communities from control and spray-exposed sites. This study suggests that glyphosate use, in comparable environments, is unlikely to affect aquatic invertebrates. Furthermore, the study illustrates invertebrate communities’ resilience to drought events.     

Axiothella serrata n. sp., a maldanid polychaete from Porirua harbour,New Zealand

Axiothella serrata n. sp. (Polychaeta: Maldanidae) is described and illustrated from intertidal sands of Porirua Harbour, New Zealand (41° 6′ S, 174° 52′ E). It has 22 setigerous segments, and lacks asetigerous preanal segments; the mid‐ventral anal cirrus is conspicuously lengthened. The species is compared with other Axiothella species. A. catalinia Hartman, 1969 is herein transferred to Maldanella.     

Biological features of Pupu Springs

The flora and fauna of Pupu Springs (40°51'S, 172° 46'E) and five other New Zealand cold springs are described. In Pupu Springs there are 16 species of algae, 10 species of bryophytes (including three species of liverworts), and 5 species of angiosperms. The fauna includes a phreatic form (an eyeless planarian, Dugesia sp.), a possible glacial relict (the caddis fly Rakiura vernale), and cold stenotherms (e.g., the caddis fly Psilochorema tautoru). The most abundant animals in the New Zealand springs are Mollusea, Crustacea, and’ larvae of Plecoptera, Diptera, and Trichoptera.

Pupu Springs consist of five biotopes and associated biocoenoses.     

Effects of sea urchin (Evechinus chloroticus) grazing in Dusky Sound,Fiordland, New Zealand

Evechinus chloroticus (Val.) is known to be an important grazer of subtidal barren habitats in northern New Zealand but its role in structuring rocky reef communities at colder southern localities is poorly understood. The present study was prompted by a proposal for the establishment of an E. chloroticus fishery in Dusky Sound, Fiordland, New Zealand. To determine the ecological importance of E. chloroticus in Dusky Sound, sea urchins were experimentally removed from shallow fucoid fringe (upper zone), mid‐depth barrens (middle zone), and deeper algal meadow (lower zone), at eight sites and compared with a paired set of eight control sites. Two years of continuous removal of E. chloroticus resulted in conspicuous changes to the algal community at all depth zones examined. The density of fucoid algae (Carpophyllum spp., Sargassum spp., Cystophora spp., and Landsburgia quercifolia) increased mostly in the upper and middle zones, although smaller increases were also observed in the lower zone. Changes in cover of herbaceous, turfing and crustose algae observed in the middle and lower zones were larger than in the upper zone. Density increases of the kelp Ecklonia radiata were observed mainly in the lower zone, although still important in the middle zone. These results show that E. chloroticus can have a strong influence on the structure of algal assemblages in Dusky Sound hence the development of an E. chloroticus fishery in this area should be treated with caution.     

Prey characteristics and dietary composition in intertidal Astrostole scabra (Echinodermata: Asteroidea)

Dietary composition in juvenile Astrostole scabra at Kaikoura, New Zealand (42°25′S, 173°42′E), changed qualitatively with increased seastar size so that food was partitioned amongst starfish size classes according to a combination of prey species and size. Small A. scabra fed more frequently than large specimens. Size‐discriminant feeding was evident as large Turbo smaragdus and Risellopsis varia, small Melagraphia aethiops, and intermediate sized Micrelenchus dilatatus, Ischnochiton maorianus, Onithochiton neglectus, and Amaurochiton glaucus were consumed in proportions greater than those found in the habitat. Major prey species have both spatial and size refuges from predation.     

First record of the Australian ascidian Eudistoma elongatum in northern New Zealand

A colonial ascidian was first reported by marine farmers in Houhora Harbour, Northland, New Zealand in early 2005 and subsequently found on oyster racks in Parengarenga Harbour and the Bay of Islands. The Northland ascidian was identified with a combination of morphological characters and DNA cytochrome c oxidase I (COI) sequence data, as Eudistoma elongatum, a species native to Australia, where it is found from northern New South Wales to Northern Queensland, and distinguished from Eudistoma circumvallatum, the only reported species in this genus from New Zealand. Ascidian larvae are weak dispersers and long distance dispersal of E. elongatum is likely to be enhanced by vectors such as oyster barges and/or movement of cultured oysters. In its native range, E. elongatum is restricted to areas with a minimum winter sea temperature of 16°C. Assuming similar biological limitations apply in New Zealand, the spread of E. elongatum might be restricted to northern New Zealand (north of latitude 37°S).     

Effects of crayfish (Paranephrops planifrons: Parastacidae) on in‐stream processes and benthic faunas: A density manipulation experiment

The effects of New Zealand freshwater crayfish or koura (Paranephrops planifrons: Parastacidae) on organic matter processing, sediment accumulation, and benthic invertebrate communities were investigated using four replicate treatments of 0 (control), 4–5 (medium), and 8–11 (high) similar‐sized koura in 0.5 m² artificial stream channels colonised by benthic invertebrates from a pasture stream, Waikato, New Zealand. Wineberry (Aristotelia serrata) leaf packs were placed in each channel and after 7 weeks the leaf matter remaining was significantly lower in both medium and high koura channels than in controls. The amount of sediment (surficial cover by fines and weight of suspendable sediment) was also significantly reduced in high koura density channels. Densities of invertebrates other than crayfish were not significantly different among treatments; however, taxa richness and invertebrate biomass were significantly lower in high koura channels than in controls. Our results suggest that freshwater koura may play a keystone role in structuring benthic invertebrate communities either directly through predation, or indirectly by sediment bioturbation and increasing organic matter processing rates.     

Sperm whales in the western south pacific

The distribution and movements of sperm whales, Physeter catodon Linn., in the western South Pacific (latitudes 30–70° S, longitudes 150E‐150°W) are examined. An undetermined number of catches by nineteenth century American whaleships, 9,720 catches by pelagic fleets in 1961–70, and 427 sightings in 1967 are analysed and correlated with oceanographic data from Australian and New Zealand surveys.

The proportion of females decreases southwards, abruptly at about latitude 44° S in the Tasman Sea, and at about 46–47° S east of New Zealand. Virtually no females occur south of 50° S. The male population density also decreases southwards: the density between 50–70° S appears to be less than 25% of that between 30–50° S. Sperm whales also appear to be less abundant in the eastern part of the region away from the New Zealand plateau, but more data are required.

The pattern of distribution and its seasonal changes probably correlate with vertical temperature gradients of about 5°c in the upper 100 m of water, i.e., optimal conditions for squid schooling. Catch per unit effort in autumn is lower than in spring. A northward population shift in autumn is inferred, based on reduction of available food species and probable temperature tolerances of calves, most of which are born in February and March, towards the end of the southern summer. Some males overwinter in areas where suitable gradients persist, e.g., around the Chatham Islands.

Possibly the summer surface temperature maxima south of the South Island are low enough to inhibit the passage of breeding schools with calves from one side of the New Zealand archipelago to the other. Sperm whales do not pass through Cook Strait normally. Thus, unless considerable mixing of stocks occurs north of New Zealand in winter, there may be two “unit stocks”, one oscillating seasonally between the central Tasman Sea and the Fiji‐Tonga region, and another (probably smaller) between the east coast of the South Island and the region just north of the Chatham Islands.     

Biota of a subalpine springbrook in the Southern Alps

The flora and fauna of a subalpine springbrook at Cass in the Southern Alps of New Zealand was studied from April 1975 to January 1976. Spring water was moderately hard (30.0 g.m.^‐3), with high concentrations of dissolved oxygen (> 90% saturation) and carbon dioxide (5–14 g.m^‐3) and a temperature of 6.0–6.5°C. Three mosses covered much of the stream bed and formed distinct zones. Fissidens rigidulus inhabited torrential, water near the middle of the channel, Pterygophyllum quadrijarium. grew in the water‐saturated inner spray zone, and Cratoneuropsis relaxa inhabited the outer spray zone. In moss samples, 44 species of invertebrates were collected, mainly immature stages of insects. Zelandoperla jenestrata (Plecoptera), Zelolessica cheira (Trichoptera) a species of Empididae (Diptera) and several species of Chironomidae were most abundant in Fissidens; Austroperla cyrene (Plecoptera), a species of Helodidae (Coleoptera) and a triclad, Neppia montana, were most abundant in Pterygophyllum; an isopod, Styloniscus otakensis, was the only common animal on Cratoneuropsis. It is suggested that animal microdistribution patterns reflect differences in water saturation, flow rates, and detritus trapping ability within the moss zones.     

New species of benthopelagic copepod Xantharus (Calanoida: Scolecitrichidae) from the upper slope,eastern central New Zealand

Xantharus Andronov, 1981 is reported, for the first time from New Zealand, from the upper slope (306 m) off the southeastern coast of North Island (41°04.10′S, 176°22.05′E). Xantharus cryeri n. sp. females differ from the three known species by a combination of characters: antennules that extend to the distal border of pedigerous somite 2; ancestral segment XVIII of the antennule with 1 seta; mandible basis with 3 setae; maxilla endite 1 with 5 setae; leg 1 basis with inner distal border lined with small spinules; and leg 5 is squat, with all segments as long as wide and the 2 terminal spine‐like extensions of the terminal segment approximately as long as the articulated, inner, subterminal spine.     

Responses of two trophic levels to patch enrichment along a New Zealand stream continuum

We carried out a benthic survey and two experiments in runs at eight sites down the Kakanui River (South Island, New Zealand) during summer low flows, to investigate the interaction between nutrients, periphyton, and macro‐grazers. Benthic periphytic biomass was generally low (< 20 mg m^‐2 chlorophyll a) at most sites, but high densities of macro‐grazers (mainly snails) were observed at six of the eight sites. Chlorophyll a and cellular P concentrations were generally higher on artificial substrates in the first‐ to third‐order tributaries, compared with downstream. Macro‐grazer densities (mainly snails) were also highest in the second‐ and third‐order tributaries. Enrichment of patches with N and P did not translate into significant increases in chlorophyll a concentrations. Instead there was a general increase in macro‐grazers, and an increase in the relative abundance of Cocconeis placentula. In a second experiment, the chlorophyll a level was five‐fold higher on the substrates where macro‐grazers were excluded and there was no significant response of chlorophyll a to nutrient addition on these substrates. On the grazed substrates, densities of snails and caddis‐larvae were two‐fold higher with N+P enrichment. These experiments provided evidence for a tight coupling between first and second trophic levels, and strong grazer control of periphyton, in this river.     

Microbiological studies of thermal habitats of the central volcanic region,North Island,New Zealand

This account of studies on the algae and bacteria of North Island thermal areas records temperature, pH and species found in these microbial habitats, with special attention to organisms living at the highest temperatures. Thermal features were studied at Rotorua (Whakarewarewa and Ohinemutu), Waiotapu (Tourist Reserve and Lady Knox Geyser), Orakei Korako, Taupo Spa, Waikite Springs, Wairakei thermal valley, Wairakei geothermal field, Tikitere, Ketetahi, Lake Rotokawa (Taupo region), Waimangu, De Brett Thermal Hotel (Taupo).

The upper temperature limit for blue‐green algae in New Zealand is 60–65°c, and the species living at the thermal limit is generally Mastigocladus laminosus, although in some cases Phormidium sp. or Synechococcus sp. was found. The Synechococcus sp. characteristic of high temperatures (73–74°c) present in North America was not found in New Zealand. In virtually all boiling pools (99–101°c) with pH values in the neutral and alkaline range bacteria were found, but in acidic boiling pools, bacteria were absent. The presence in New Zealand of the eucaryotic algae Cyanidium caldarium and Zygogonium sp. is reported for the first time. Further records for the hot spring brine fly Ephydrella thermarum and other ephydrids are given. The observations are compared with previous data on thermal habitats in Yellowstone Park, in Iceland, and in other parts of the world.     

Preliminary assessment of crustacean distribution patterns in New Zealand groundwater aquifers

Crustaceans were sampled in 17 groundwater wells at five locations in North and South Islands of New Zealand. Three sampling locations were associated with unconfined aquifers adjacent to gravel‐bed rivers, whereas the other two locations were distant from rivers, but associated with land‐based sewage effluent disposal sites. Crustaceans and basic physico‐chemical parameters were sampled in summer and winter. Total abundance varied from 1 to 1064 individuals/250 litre sample. Copepods dominated the fauna at four of the five locations, and were most abundant immediately downstream of a sewage effluent disposal area. Paraleptamphopus spp. (Amphipoda) was found at all five locations, and abundance was also greatest downstream of sewage effluent disposal areas. Several crustacean taxa were rare or limited in distribution, including the gammarid Paracrangonyx sp. and the anthurid isopod Cruregens sp. Syncarids were widely distributed, but found in low numbers, and no specimens were found immediately below sewage effluent disposal areas. We suggest that groundwater ecology in New Zealand is restricted by lack of knowledge of taxonomy and ecology of key groups, particularly the Copepoda.     

Microcoleus autumnalis and filamentous algae-dominated mats and chlorophyll-a increase with agricultural land use but respond differently to associated nutrient and sediment enrichment

ABSTRACT

This study investigated the impact of pastoral land use and nutrient and fine sediment inputs on Microcoleus autumnalis and filamentous algae-dominated mats, and benthic chlorophyll-a in streams (lower North Island, New Zealand). Surveying and sampling was undertaken monthly at 61 sites spanning a wide gradient in catchment cover and environmental conditions. Two boosted regression tree models were built. The first models included pastoral land cover and five environmental variables as predictors. In the second model pastoral land cover was replaced by nutrient/sediment data. The abundance of the two mat types and chlorophyll-a increased when pastoral land cover was between 20% and 70% (model 1). Replacement of pastoral land cover by nutrient/sediment data (model 2) slightly improved the model fit for all three periphyton variables. Microcoleus autumnalis-dominant mats increased with dissolved inorganic nitrogen concentrations up to ca. 0.6?mg?L^?1, and in streams with more frequent flushes. In contrast, filamentous algal-dominated mats increased with turbidity, and in streams with less frequent flushes. Chlorophyll-a generally followed the response of the dominant periphyton type. Increased knowledge on responses of specific periphyton types, rather than total biomass, to environmental variables is essential to guide effective management strategies.     

Observations on Chatham Rise currents

New Zealand stream ecosystems differ from many of their North American counterparts, on which general stream ecosystem models are based, in several ways. In New Zealand, large particle detritivores (shredders) are poorly represented, and the dominant invertebrates are browsers which feed on fine particulate organic matter and stone‐surface organic layers. In contrast with the river continuum concept of Vannote et al. (Canadian Journal of Fisheries and Aquatic Sciences 37: 130–137, 1980), representation of functional feeding groups shows little change downstream and a temporal continuum of synchronous species replacements is not found. Many common benthic invertebrates are ecologically flexible species with poorly synchronised life histories. These differences appear to be associated with the non‐retentive, climatically unpredictable nature of the stream environment. The idea that stream communities are highly structured entities is questioned, as is the generality of the river continuum concept.