Metal enrichment in the groundwater of the arid environment in South Africa

This paper presents the enrichment tendency and spatial distribution of metals in the groundwater which is pumped out from the granitic aquifers in South Africa. Groundwater is the sole source of water supply for the local community in the study area (Namaqualand), and hence, it was necessary to understand the controlling geochemical processes and interrelationship of metals in the groundwater. The geochemical association of metals has been assessed based on the geostatistical methods. The results show that geochemical processes such as oxidation, leaching, and evaporation besides water–rock interaction are very important in controlling metal enrichment in the groundwater from highly mineralized rocks. The metal enrichment index for selected toxic metals in groundwater increases in the order of Cd > U > Cr > Pb. The observed enrichment trend could be considered as a result of mineralization of basement rocks which is facilitated by active geochemical process in the arid environment. The lack of aquifer flushing due to negligible recharge helps the metals to concentrate at shallow groundwater zones supported by severe evaporation process.     

Uranium series disequilibrium in a young surficial uranium deposit,northeastern Washington,U.S.A.

A recently discovered ore-grade accumulation of U in organic-rich sediments of late Quaternary age provides an opportunity for studying the early association of U, U-daughters, and organic matter in a natural setting. The U occurs in valley-fill sediments of peat, peaty clay, silt, and sand along the north fork of Flodelle Creek, Stevens County, Washington. Radiometric techniques (delayed neutron, high-resolution gamma-ray spectrometry, thin-source alpha spectrometry) were employed to determine the abundance and distribution of U-series nuclides, the extent of secular equilibrium within the U decay series, and the apparent U-series ages of U incorporation.Sixteen lithologically distinct intervals were sampled from a 292 cm core. Uranium contents range from 140 to 2790 ppm and are positively correlated with organic contents. Measured alpha activity ratios of ²³⁴U/²³⁸U (1.31–1.38) are very similar to those reported in coexisting waters, suggesting a rather constant isotopic composition of introduced U. Much lower Th contents of <10–40 ppm are controlled by the type and abundance of silicate detritus. The youth of the host sediments (<15 000 a) and the paucity of associated radioactivity suggested large excesses of U relative to radioactive daughters and such excesses were observed, particularly in the shallowest intervals. Apparent ages of U emplacement determined by the (alpha) activity ratio of ²³⁰Th daughter to ²³⁴U parent show a general increase with depth and fair agreement with estimated depositional ages. This observation suggests dominantly syndepositional or early post depositional emplacement of U followed by decay-generated buildup of ²³⁰Th daughter with time. However, interval by interval comparisons of the relative abundances of other daughters, particularly ²²⁶Ra and ²¹⁰Pb, indicate variability caused by processes other than closed-system growth and decay, probably because chemically diverse daughters that are decay-generated in situ have differing mobilities and because upwelling ground water continuously adds more U and minor amounts of daughters. If ²³⁰Th is considered the least susceptible to these modifications, the data suggest some addition of ²³⁴U in the deepest intervals and some loss of ²²⁶Ra and/or gain of ²²²Rn throughout the studied core.     

Pleistocene sediment-hosted uranium deposits at Henkries, South Africa: using settling tubes to delineate buried ore bodies

Sediment-hosted uranium ores at Henkries in northwest South Africa occur in fine-grained sands, carbonaceous muds and diatomaceous earth within late Pleistocene lake deposits. The lakes are linked by short fluvial channel reaches and these aqueous beds are encompassed in predominant aeolian dune deposits. The late Pleistocene fluvial-lacustrine-aeolian succession is succeeded by a Holocene dune cover. Textural characterisation of lacustrine, fluvial and aeolian sands was based on volume percentages observed in sediment settling tubes. Vortex action during Holocene dune migration contaminated these aeolian cover sands with small amounts of substrate material, whose presence could be detected in settling tube patterns of surface aeolian sediment samples. It was thus possible to map buried lacustrine ore bodies, which were shown, by a successful drilling programme, to be displaced downwind. Received: 28 August 1996 / Accepted: 3 September 1996     

Uranium-series dating of lacustrine limestones from pan deposits with final Acheulian assemblage at Rooidam,Kimberley district,South Africa

Lacustrine limestone samples from sedimentary pan deposits at Rooidam, near Kimberley, South Africa, that contain late Acheulian (Fauresmith) artifacts have been dated by ${}^{230}\text{Th}{}^{234}\text{U}$ and ${}^{231}\text{Pa}{}^{235}\text{U}$ methods. Results indicate a minimum age of about 200,000 yr B.P. for the terminal Acheulian in the interior of South Africa.     

Geochemistry of Miocene lacustrine sediments from the Sokolov Coal Basin (Czech Republic)

Sediments of the upper part of the Sokolov Formation of the Sokolov Brown Coal Basin consist mostly of brown lacustrine clays and claystones enriched in organic matter (2–18% TOC). The lower portion of the stratigraphic profile is formed mostly by kaolinite–illite clays and claystones, while the montmorillonite content increases in the upper portion. The change in the lithology of sediments is caused by the gradual erosion of the weathering crust in the source areas of the clastic material. Inversion of the weathering profile during erosion is manifested geochemically in a decrease in the Al₂O₃/Na₂O ratio and an increase in the SiO₂/Al₂O₃, Na₂O/K₂O and K₂O/TiO₂ ratios from the base to the top of the studied part of the Sokolov Formation. The amounts of trace elements (La, Ce, Nb, Zr, Cr, V, Sn) also decrease in the same direction. On the other hand, the amounts of Rb and Sr increase. The organic matter of the upper part of the Sokolov Formation consists primarily of Types I and II kerogen. Only near the base of the studied part of the formation, i.e., in the coal stringer, kerogen of Type III prevails. The extremely low degree of thermal maturity permits determination of the source of the organic matter and characterization of its accumulation environment. The organic material in the sediments is predominantly of algae origin. Relatively high amount of pentacyclic triterpanes of the hopane series indicates either the occurrence of cyanobacteria as primary producers or bacterial reworking during sedimentation and diagenesis. Organic matter accumulated under the conditions of a fresh-water lake or lake with slightly elevated salinity, in a dysoxic aqueous environment. The alternation of organic carbon-rich layers with layers low in organic matter is explained in terms of changes in the degree of dysoxia of the aqueous environment and a variation in the intensity of oxidation and mineralization of the organic material.     

Dolerite intrusion morphology at Majuba Colliery, northeast Karoo Basin, Republic of South Africa

Dolerite sills, at times transgressive, and dykes are common at Majuba Colliery. Their behaviour within the Karoo stratigraphic pile limits and controls the effectiveness of extracting the deep-seated Gus coal seam. Due to the intrusion of dolerites, the coal seam elevation can vary by as much as 70 m. Data from 452 boreholes, 88 of which were drilled to granitic gneiss basement and data from the underground development were used to construct cross-sections through the colliery. Based on texture, geochemistry and mode of emplacement, there exist four different dolerite types (T1 to T4) at Majuba. These are intruded into sedimentary rocks of the Karoo Supergroup although one, the T3 dolerite, has been found intruded into basement gneiss. In the east, an ultramafic intrusion of pre-Karoo Supergroup age created a basement high. By far, the greatest number of dolerite sills intruded within a sandstone unit, and have identical sandstones in the footwall and hangingwall, rather than intruding along lithological boundaries.     

Modeling the Merensky Reef,Bushveld Complex,Republic of South Africa

The Merensky pegmatoid (normal reef) in the western Bushveld Complex is commonly characterized as a pyroxene-rich pegmatoidal unit with a base that is enriched in chromite and platinum-group element-bearing sulfides overlying a leuconorite footwall. Models for its formation have ranged from those that view it as entirely a magmatic cumulate succession to those that have suggested that it is a zone of volatile-induced remelting. The consequences of the latter interpretation are investigated using the numerical modeling program IRIDIUM, which links diffusive and advective mass and heat transport with a phase equilibration routine based on the MELTS program. The initial system consists of a simple stratigraphic succession of a partially molten leuconorite overlain by a partially molten pyroxenite, both initially at 1,190°C and 2 kbar. 2 wt% of a volatile fluid composed of 75 mol% H₂O, 20 mol% CO₂ and 5 mol% H₂S is then added to the lower 20 cm of the pyroxenite. The system is then allowed to evolve under conditions of chemical diffusion in the liquid. The addition of the volatile components results in a modest increase in the amount of melt in the pyroxenite. However, chemical diffusion across the leuconorite–pyroxenite boundary leads to more extensive melting at and below the boundary with preferential loss of opx from the underlying leuconorite, preferential re-precipitation of sulfide and chromite and concentration of the PGE at this boundary. These results mimic actual mineral and compositional profiles across the Merensky pegmatoid and illustrate that long-term diffusion process can effectively produce mineralogical and compositional layering not present in the original assemblage.     

Variable 10Be fluxes in lacustrine sediments from Tristan da Cunha,South Atlantic: a solar record?

A 650-yr-long sediment sequence from a crater lake on Tristan da Cunha, South Atlantic, was analysed for its ¹⁰Be content. Based on ¹⁴C dating, and sedimentary, geochemical, magnetic and palynological records, the period between 900 and 1450 AD appears to have been unusually stable in terms of sedimentation and vegetation and therefore this period was chosen for analysis of the ¹⁰Be content. During this period of highly organic sedimentation and closed vegetation, the pattern of ¹⁰Be flux variations follows the ¹⁰Be fluctuations from the GRIP ice core and estimated ¹⁴C production rates well. However, before and after this stable period, variable sedimentation rates have to be accounted for to obtain results that are comparable to the established ¹⁰Be/¹⁴C records. Our data show not only the possibility of obtaining detailed enough ¹⁰Be flux data from sedimentary sequences to reconstruct past solar forcing but also how sensitive this type of record is to sedimentary and environmental changes. If suitable archives can be found, they have the potential to improve reconstructions of solar activity far back in time.     

Evidence of graphite from the Onverwacht series Precambrian cherts,Swaziland system of South Africa

Examination of insoluble organic matter by X-ray diffraction has revealed the presence of graphite in a number of chert and carbonate samples from the Kromberg Formation of the Onverwacht Group (more than 3.2·10⁹ years old).In one sample, shear stress appears to have given rise to modified rhombohedral graphite, indicating that the Lower Onverwacht may have been metamorphosed.     

Oncolites from lacustrine sediments in the Cretaceous of north-eastern Spain

Compact micritic oncolites up to 8 cm in maximum diameter occur within Maestrichtian (Upper Cretaceous) Garumniense continental marls of Sierra del Montsec (Lerida Province) of north-eastern Spain. Synsedimentary development is documented by patches of terrigenous quartz that occur among oncolitic protuberances. Soluble nuclei (limestone fragments and bivalves) further suggest an origin through accretion, rather than that of soil pisolite. Similarities between the petrography and isotopic compositions of the oncolites and those of interbedded Garumniense limestones suggest similar sedimentary origins. However, these lacustrine oncolites, like modern counterparts described by others, probably developed through in situ metabolic precipitation of calcium carbonate. Evidence of this origin is their high degree of concentricity, which is unlikely to have developed through sedimentary accretion, inasmuch as the oncolites ‘float’ in quiet-water marls.     

Assessing the extent of disequilibrium and overstepping of prograde metamorphic reactions in metapelites from the Bushveld Complex aureole, South Africa

Andalusite–staurolite–biotite hornfels metamorphosed beneath the mafic layered rocks of the Bushveld Complex, South Africa, preserves a detailed record of the relative timing of porphyroblast growth and metamorphic reactions. The sequence inferred from microstructures shows considerable overlap of the period of growth of porphyroblasts of staurolite, cordierite, biotite and andalusite, and the persistence over a similar interval of the reactant porphyroblastic phase chloritoid. This is inconsistent with calculations of equilibrium phase relations, and implies that disequilibrium processes controlled the prograde reaction sequence, despite the slow heating rates involved (1 °C per 10 000 yr). The early appearance of cordierite by a metastable reaction and its subsequent disappearance indicates that delayed nucleation of porphyroblastic phases, rather than simply sluggish reaction, is required to account for the sequence of growth. The predicted reactions for the first appearance of andalusite and staurolite have low entropy of reaction, and do not occur until they have been overtaken in terms of reaction affinity by high‐entropy devolatilisation reactions involving the breakdown of chlorite. Once the porphyroblasts have nucleated, metastable chloritoid‐breakdown reactions also contribute to their growth. The implied magnitude of the critical overstepping for andalusite nucleation is around 5 kJ mole^?1 (equivalent to 40 °C for the chlorite‐breakdown reaction), and that for other phases is expected to decrease in the order andalusite>staurolite>cordierite. Coupling between nucleation rate, crystal growth rates and the resulting grain size distribution suggests that the rate constants of natural reactions are at least an order of magnitude lower than those measured in the laboratory. Pseudomorphs after chloritoid and cordierite conserve volume but not Al or other species of low mobility, suggesting a breakdown mechanism controlled by an interface process such as the slow dissolution of the refractory porphyroblast phase, rather than by a transport step.     

2万年来南亚季风演化历史

文章综合中国西南部位于不同纬度、不同海拔,代表不同地貌、气候和植被单元的星云湖、腾冲青海湖、泸沽湖和伍须海这4个湖泊2万年以来的孢粉、硅藻记录,揭示了中国西南部2万年来的气候变化与南亚季风演化历史。结果表明,在中国西南地区,冰盛期后首次开始升温的时间发生在19.0~18.0 ka（1 ka=1000 cal.a B.P.）之间。自冰消期首次开始升温以后,中国西南地区气候具有区域差异,即在中国西南部偏西偏南、受较单一南亚季风影响的区域,冰后期都存在H1冷事件、B/A暖期和YD冷事件,并于11.5 ka左右进入全新世,开始是缓慢增温增湿,随后在10.0 ka左右进入明显变暖湿的时期;全新世适宜期都出现在中全新世,然后进入晚全新世降温期,并逐步开始受到人类活动的影响。在中国西南部偏东、偏北的区域,还兼受东亚季风影响,导致气候效应更加复杂。中国西南地区2万年来的气候变化揭示南亚季风从19.0 ka左右开始逐渐增强,在季风逐渐增强的过程中,出现两次明显的季风减弱期,分别对应H1和YD时期;在11.5 ka左右,南亚季风进一步增强,并在中全新世达到最强,随后又逐渐减弱。对其机制探讨认为,冰盛期后首次升温及此后逐渐增温的趋势主要受夏季太阳辐射的控制,同时,温室气体浓度的变化也起了重要的调制作用。而增温过程中存在的H1和YD突然变冷事件与大西洋温盐环流减弱有关;南亚季风区的全新世适宜期发生在中全新世可能是受海平面上升、海表温度、冰量范围、9月太阳辐射量等多种因素的共同影响。

     

Textures of orthopyroxenites from the Burgersfort bulge of the eastern Bushveld Complex, Republic of South Africa

A suite of 30 samples was collected from the Burgersfort bulge area of the eastern Bushveld Complex for a detailed quantitative textural study. The studied section represents a stratigraphic column approximately 1,000 m thick, of mainly orthopyroxenites from the lower zone (LZ) and lower critical zone. Crystal size distribution (CSD) plots and quantitative fabric analyses reveal a history of crystal aging and compaction, as evident from the loss of smaller-sized crystals and the development of foliation with little evidence of mineral lineation. Compared with the thicker section from Jagdlust (~80 km north), the LZ orthopyroxenites at Burgersfort are consistently finer grained. Foliation is equally well developed at both locations and is consistent with a relatively thin compaction zone at the top of the mush column. Grain size is largely a function of local cooling history with a grain size growth exponent estimated to be between 2.0 and 3.4.     

宁夏清水河盆地晚更新世两期湖相沉积物的形成时代、沉积环境及构造背景

为了解宁夏清水河盆地晚更新世以来的沉积、构造演化规律,采用钻探、粒度分析、光释光测年等技术,对盆地中部发现的2期晚更新世湖相地层进行了沉积学、年代学研究。结果表明,下部湖相地层萨拉乌苏组的形成时代为76~63 ka,上部湖相地层水洞沟组形成时代为25~11 ka,二者之间存在明显的侵蚀面。根据沉积证据和粒度分析结果,将萨拉乌苏组自下而上划分为4个沉积阶段,构成了一个完整的湖进-湖退序列,代表了一期温暖湿润的气候环境;而水洞沟组为干冷环境下形成的浅湖。构造、环境对比分析表明,清水河盆地2期古大湖的形成、消亡指示该地区晚更新世经历了拉张-挤压-拉张的构造转换。两次拉张作用是萨拉乌苏湖和水洞沟湖形成的主要因素,古大湖发育的间断期存在的强烈构造隆升事件是导致萨拉乌苏湖消亡的根本原因,末次冰期MIS4和MIS2晚期的异常寒冷气候也是古湖衰退的原因之一。清水河盆地2期古湖的演化规律,为研究青藏高原周缘晚更新世古大湖形成与演化、古气候变迁及青藏高原的隆升提供了重要的证据。     

Ore-structure relationships at Sishen Mine,Northern Cape,Republic of South Africa,based on fully-constrained implicit 3D modelling

A fully-constrained, implicit, 3D geological model of Sishen Mine reveals the original, pre-mining geometry of ore bodies, host rocks to mineralization and major structures. There are several overlapping controls, at a variety of scales, on the position, depth and geometry of laminated and conglomeratic ore. Most of these controls are structural or may be reconciled with the kinematic history of this part of the Maremane Dome. A series of near-horizontal sections, through the entire 3D model, demonstrates the manner in which these controls overlap and interact. First-order or large-scale controls comprise broad domes, which show preservation of laminated ore around their rims, outside of which conglomeratic ore occurs. Second-order controls comprise grabens and half-grabens, which are often bounded by strike-persistent normal faults, which show fault drag on their western flanks due to inversion, along with preservation of BIF-related supergene ore and conglomeratic ore. A type example is the thick, deep, linear ore to the west of the Sloep Fault. Third-order controls on the preservation of mineralization comprise downthrown blocks to the north of reactivated E-W, SE/ESE- or NE/ENE-trending conjugate faults. Upthrow to the south could be attributed to the 1.15–1.0 Ga NNW-directed Lomanian (Namaqua-Natal) Orogeny. Palaeosinkholes comprise fourth-order controls, which are superimposed on higher-order controls. Palaeosinkholes, which form the bulk of current mining, comprise deep, conical depressions with anomalous thicknesses of chert, chert breccia and haematite. Due to their limited size, the steepness of all units and the often chaotic nature of detached and slumped blocks in their centres, these volumes reflect longstanding models on palaeosinkhole development and very local ore control.     

Geochemical evolution of the Richtersveld area, South Africa, as deduced from regional geochemical maps of stream sediments

The Richtersveld area, bounded by 16° and 18° E and 28° and 29° S, has been mapped geochemically using stream sediment samples collected from first-order streams on a one-kilometre grid. The samples have been analysed for 20 elements and geochemical maps on a scale of 1:250,000 have been prepared.The basement consists of the Orange River Group which has been intruded by the Vioolsdrift Suite between 1700 and 1900 Ma. Intrusive into the Vioolsdrift Suite is the Richtersveld Suite, consisting of alkaline granite, syenite and diorite, which intruded at 970 Ma.The basement and the Richtersveld Complex are overlain by the younger Gariep Complex and in the south the Vioolsdrift Suite is overlain by the still younger Nama basin. The last intrusive event was the emplacement of three granitic plutons at 550 Ma.Geochemical maps for Rb and Y are used to characterize the geochemistry of the basement rocks. These maps show that the northern portion of the Vioolsdrift Suite is granodioritic whereas the southern portion is granitic. The boundary between the two granitic terrains is delineated.The distribution of Rb in the sandstone of the Gariep Complex reflects the Rb variation in the Vioolsdrift Suite and the Richtersveld Complex from which it was derived. The Rb in the sandstone occurs in feldspar thus demonstrating that mechanical weathering dominated during the its formation. The distribution of Y confirms both the proposed source areas and weathering conditions. Yttrium occurs in placer deposits in the sandstones of the Gariep Complex.The deep water facies of the Gariep Complex reflects the provenance areas vaguely, but due to homogenization in the basin the distribution of Y is more homogeneous in the shale. The effect of chemical traps such as dolomitic limestone is, however, apparent.The sporadic high concentration levels of Rb and Y in the sandstone of the Nama basin indicate that the granitic portion of the Vioolsdrift batholith was the source area, that mechanical weathering dominated and that placer deposits formed during the deposition of the fluvial sandstones. The dolomitic limestones, however, show evidence of the chemical fractionation of Y, indicating that chemical leaching and concentration took place during this phase.Elements such as Sn, W, Be, B, Th, Nb and Ta, all of which occur in the southern Vioolsdrift batholith, could have concentrated as placers in the Gariep and Nama sandstones. Elements such as U, Y, P, and Cu, of which substantial deposits are known, did not concentrate in the sandstones, but formed accumulations in the limestone and carbonaceous limestone of the younger sediments. Geochemical maps for Y, P and U show examples of hitherto unknown metallogenic provinces in the deep water sediments.Geochemical maps for Ti, Zr and P can be used to define the boundaries and relative concentration of diamonds within individual deposits and to identify new exploration targets.The pegmatite metallogenic province is divided into a northern P-enriched province containing accumulations of Y, Zr, Th, U and rare-earths, and a southern Nb-enriched province. The latter contains several Ta- and Be-producing pegmatites. The extension of these two pegmatitic provinces, which are also associated with the widespread W-mineralization, to the west of the Nama basin is also suggested.     

Hydrothermal Cu-Ni-Au-Ag mineralization in a granodiorite sill north of Cradock, Republic of South Africa

An undulating sheet-like granodiorite body is intrusive into sedimentary rocks and dolerite of the Karoo Supergroup north of Cradock. The top of this sheet, where in contact with dolerite, is characterised by the presence of graphite containing nodules of sedimentary origin, and by sulphide-arsenide mineralization. REE and other geochemical evidence indicate that the granodiorite and the ore-bearing horizon are genetically related, but the latter is more altered by hydrothermal fluids. Similarities in REE distribution patterns also imply very little assimilation of sedimentary material. The granodiorite displays plume-like features signifying that the material was plastic or semi-molten when segregation of the plume-like features took place. The Ni-mineralisation in the ore-bearing horizon is not linked to the MgO or Fe₂O₃ of the granodiorite or of the ore-bearing zone, and is regarded as a separate event of hydrothermal origin. Received: 26 July 1996 / Accepted: 17 March 1997     

Uranium series disequilibria in the sedimentary uranium deposit at Yeelirrie,Western Australia

The weighted mean values of the ²³⁴U/²³⁸U and the ²³⁰Th/²³⁴U ratios in ore samples collected above the modern water table of the Yeelirrie uranium deposit in Western Australia are 1.38 ± 0.10 and 0.83 ± 0.28, respectively. The relatively larger variability in the latter ratio is evidence for the translocation of uranium subsequent to deposition. Daughter product separation is due to differences in the mobilities of the thorium and uranium species. Factors involved in interpreting the observed ratios, in terms of the dynamics of the accumulation of the deposit, are assessed in terms of an open system model. The observed disequilibria provide a quantitative basis for the evaluation of hypotheses developed from geological and other considerations.