Experimental rock deformation: techniques, results and applications to tectonics

Flow and fracture of rocks in the Earth's crust and upper mantle are evident from the study of rocks in the field, but the same features can be induced in laboratory experiments on rocks at high temperatures and pressures. Through such experiments, the mechanical and other properties can be measured, and used to constrain quantitative modelling of lithospheric dynamics.     

Large deformation dynamic analysis of saturated porous media with applications to penetration problems

This paper outlines the development as well as implementation of a numerical procedure for coupled finite element analysis of dynamic problems in geomechanics, particularly those involving large deformations and soil-structure interaction. The procedure is based on Biot’s theory for the dynamic behaviour of saturated porous media. The nonlinear behaviour of the solid phase of the soil is represented by either the Mohr Coulomb or Modified Cam Clay material model. The interface between soil and structure is modelled by the so-called node-to-segment contact method. The contact algorithm uses a penalty approach to enforce constraints and to prevent rigid body interpenetration. Moreover, the contact algorithm utilises a smooth discretisation of the contact surfaces to decrease numerical oscillations. An Arbitrary Lagrangian–Eulerian (ALE) scheme preserves the quality and topology of the finite element mesh throughout the numerical simulation. The generalised-α method is used to integrate the governing equations of motion in the time domain. Some aspects of the numerical procedure are validated by solving two benchmark problems. Subsequently, dynamic soil behaviour including the development of excess pore-water pressure due to the fast installation of a single pile and the penetration of a free falling torpedo anchor are studied. The numerical results indicate the robustness and applicability of the proposed method. Typical distributions of the predicted excess pore-water pressures generated due to the dynamic penetration of an object into a saturated soil are presented, revealing higher magnitudes of pore pressure at the face of the penetrometer and lower values along the shaft. A smooth discretisation of the contact interface between soil and structure is found to be a crucial factor to avoid severe oscillations in the predicted dynamic response of the soil.     

墙土摩擦对基坑变形影响的模拟和分析

研究墙土之间的摩擦作用对合理计算基坑变形和估算支护结构竖向承载力都有重要的意义,文中运用有限元的方法对摩擦力的作用做了比较全面的分析,得出一些结论,以便实际工程参考。     

岩体假三轴压缩及变形局部化剪切带数值模拟

岩体试件应力－应变全过程曲线，剪切带图案及其演化规律不仅在理论上，而且在工程实践中有着重要的意义，利用快速拉格朗日分析法模拟了尺寸效应，加载速率和围压等因素对假三轴试件抗压应力－应变全过程曲线，变形局部化启动，稳定，剪切带图案及演化规律的影响。     

Interpolation and trend analysis: Two geohydrological applications

This paper presents two examples of applications to geohydrological data of recent techniques of trend analysis and interpolation. The first case study concerns the resistivity of spring waters of a region in the Appenine mountains. This study has been carried out by Idrotecneco on behalf of the Italian Geological Survey, as part of a pilot study for a geohydrologic map of Italy. The second example concerns the water table levels of an aquifer in the Po River alluvial plain.     

混合多位移模式的非连续变形分析法研究

传统的非连续变形分析法（DDA）法采用简单的线性位移模式计算效率高,描述大块体的高阶多项式位移模式在一定程度保留了该特点,并提高了计算精度。近年来流行的耦合有限元、自然单元的DDA法实质上是引入相应的插值形函数构成块体位移函数,计算相对低效,但具有计算更精细、更容易施加边界条件等优点。为结合传统DDA法与DDA耦合法各自的优点,建立了一种同时利用传统DDA法线性位移模式与耦合型DDA法非线性位移模式的混合法。该方法非线性模式主要针对大块体,采用了自然单元插值,缘于其具有一定无网格特征,且效率比有限元高。建立了混合模式下的整体矩阵并推导出接触等因素刚度子矩阵和荷载子向量的具体表达式。该方法建模更加方便合理,计算精度、效率介于线性模式的传统DDA法和非线性位移模式的耦合法之间。通过基本算例验证了混合法的有效性,并给出了节理围岩-隧道衬砌整体分析模型的计算结果,体现了新方法的优越性。     

Finite deformation analysis of geomaterials

The mathematical structure and numerical analysis of classical small deformation elasto–plasticity is generally well established. However, development of large deformation elastic–plastic numerical formulation for dilatant, pressure sensitive material models is still a research area. In this paper we present development of the finite element formulation and implementation for large deformation, elastic–plastic analysis of geomaterials. Our developments are based on the multiplicative decomposition of the deformation gradient into elastic and plastic parts. A consistent linearization of the right deformation tensor together with the Newton method at the constitutive and global levels leads toward an efficient and robust numerical algorithm. The presented numerical formulation is capable of accurately modelling dilatant, pressure sensitive isotropic and anisotropic geomaterials subjected to large deformations. In particular, the formulation is capable of simulating the behaviour of geomaterials in which eigentriads of stress and strain do not coincide during the loading process. The algorithm is tested in conjunction with the novel hyperelasto–plastic model termed the B material model, which is a single surface (single yield surface, affine single ultimate surface and affine single potential surface) model for dilatant, pressure sensitive, hardening and softening geomaterials. It is specifically developed to model large deformation hyperelasto–plastic problems in geomechanics. We present an application of this formulation to numerical analysis of low confinement tests on cohesionless granular soil specimens recently performed in a SPACEHAB module aboard the Space Shuttle during the STS‐89 mission. We compare numerical modelling with test results and show the significance of added confinement by the thin hyperelastic latex membrane undergoing large stretching. Copyright © 2001 John Wiley & Sons, Ltd.     

深部大变形回采巷道围岩拉压分区变形破坏的模拟研究

为研究深部回采巷道围岩大变形破坏规律,在地质力学评估及矿压显现特征实测的基础上,采用真三轴相似模拟方法,模拟了不同加载梯度下巷道围岩应变特征。结果显示,在浅埋静水压力条件下,巷道围岩呈现“浅部拉应变、深部零应变”的特征;深埋静水压力及初掘采动应力下巷道围岩出现“径向应变拉压交替分布”现象;当采动应力集中系数大于2时,深埋巷道围岩应变进入非线性大应变状态。采用FLAC3D的应变软化模型与摩尔-库仑模型,对比研究了深部回采巷道围岩位移、塑性区分布规律。结果表明,应变软化条件下,巷道围岩产生拉、压分区破坏且软化后的围岩位移与实测结果更吻合。综合研究结果,揭示了深部回采巷道围岩拉、压分区的产生机制,初步提出了注浆、喷层等措施,防止过度应变软化引起深部回采巷道围岩大变形,为类似巷道稳定性控制提供了一定的参考。     

含油流体包裹体：地球化学分析与地质应用

利用含油流体包裹体可以获得与原油和源区常规分析同等质量的可靠地球化学数据。细致而又小心谨慎地对待各测试步骤(如样品清洗、背景空白等)是成功进行包裹体油气成分分析的基础。从技术上来说,每一分析步骤都具有挑战性,但如果我们能按步骤循序渐进,就不仅能够分析那些含有大量石油包裹体的样品(如当今或古油藏样品),而且可以测试含极少量石油包裹体的样品(如迁移路径或极古老岩石样品)。包裹体中可被测试的碳氢化合物多种多样,包括低分子量的碳氢化合物、n-链烷、类异戊二烯、生物标志物、芳香族碳氢化合物等。流体包裹体内石油成分分析在地质上有广泛应用,比如可以更好地重建储集区石油重注史、确定盆地中以前未知的活性源岩。在储集区内由生物降解造成的石油再造和(或)水洗作用经常被抹去,流体包襄体分析则可以解释储集区复杂成油阶段,当然更可以去除钻孔泥浆添加剂或其他污染物的影响。此外,也可以获知地球早期生物圈碳氢化合物的组成及多样性,以及在勘探区或盆地进行二次迁移路径填图。     

顶管工程后背受力与变形三维分析

以某顶管工程为背景,采用朗肯被动土压力理论对后背土体的承载能力进行了分析;根据弹塑性模型建立起后背结构的三维有限元模型,对后背结构与土体在顶力作用下的变形与受力过程进行分析,并同朗肯理论结果进行比较;对影响后背结构的变形各因素进行了分析;对后背结构顶力合力点的变形进行了实测,并同理论预测结果进行了对比分析,初步探讨了形成差异的主要原因。     

GPS变形监测平差计算及不确定度分析

全球定位系统（GPS）是一种全天候、高精度的连续定位系统,它以速度快、方法灵活多样、操作简便等优势被广泛应用于工程测量和变形监测中。结合水厂铁矿GPS边坡变形监测实例,对GPS监测网的星历预报、基线向量平差计算、网平差计算、结果及残差不确定度进行了细致分析研究,以验证GPS技术在边坡变形监测中的可靠性和精度。     

Simulation and modeling of rainfall radar measurements for hydrological applications

A procedure is described for the simulation of rainfall radar reflectivity (absolute and differential) measurements by dual linear polarization meteorological radars. The basic requirement that the proposed procedure aims at satisfying is that radar data obtained at the end of the process be correlated in a physically plausible manner to the rainfall field at ground, the latter being generated by means of a stochastic space-time rainfall model. The main goal of the model is to give the possibility to easily check the accuracy of radar rainfall estimates derived by means of procedures and algorithms aimed at minimizing or compensating for the effects of measurement errors associated with several types of meteorological events, with particular reference to requirements of hydrogeological forecast systems. Within the limits imposed by the validity of the adopted model, an analysis was carried out indicating general criteria that may be adopted to achieve a better accuracy in rainfall estimates and a full exploitation of the advantages offered by the radar dual polarization measurement technique.     

Strain analysis using quartz deformation bands

Quartz deformation bands are kink bands in quartz crystals. A deformation band develops as a region of localized crystal-plastic deformation with boundaries perpendicular to the slip plane and slip direction, which usually is along an -axis in the basal plane. Under cross-polarized light, the difference in crystallographic orientation between a deformation band and its host is indicated by a difference in extinction positions. The displacement between the c axis in a deformation band and the c axis in the host represents the angular shear of the deformation band in the direction of the c axis in the host grain. Assuming the deformation is homogeneous at the grain scale, the angular shear of the grain (the gauge) is calculated by multiplying the angular shear of the deformation band by the ratio of the sheared part to the whole grain. Using the strain-gauge method for three-dimensional infinitesimal strain analysis, a minimum number of five grains measured on universal stage is needed to solve for the deviatoric strain components of the aggregate if the strain is homogeneous in the aggregate. Data from more than five grains are used to find the best-fit strain components by a least-squares method. The principal strains and their orientations are found from these strain components by calculating the eigenvalues and eigenvectors. A 3-D strain ellipsoid also is obtained from strain ellipses in three perpendicular planes determined from the two-dimensional flat-stage measurements by the Wellman method. Both the strain-gauge method and the Wellman method are tested by using synthetic data sets and applied to a naturally deformed sample. Both methods give similar results; the established Wellman method thus confirms the strain-gauge calculation.     

Variational inequality-based particle discontinuous deformation analysis

Orienting the circular and rigid particle medium, the variational inequality-based discontinuous deformation analysis (DDA) is established. In the proposed DDA, the global stiffness matrix, the penalty parameters, and the open-close iteration are successfully avoided. The contact constraint is transferred into the problem of variational or quasi-variational inequalities. And explicit variational expression on the contact force is firstly established. To speed up the rate of solving contact force, on the basis of the two-stage prediction-correction method, we design a compatibility iteration algorithm (PPC-CI). The C++ code is developed in multicore environment through the open multi-processing (OpenMP) in order to take advantage of the parallelizable features of the new DDA. Numerical tests suggest that the presented DDA is effective and promising.     

边坡变形破坏过程的大变形有限元分析

在用有限元法分析边坡稳定性时,引入计算大变形问题的更新的拉格朗日方法,推导了边坡大变形弹塑性有限元分析的方程式。采用边坡某一幅值的等效塑性剪应变区,从坡脚到坡顶贯通前的折减系数作为边坡安全系数。在此基础上,采用弹塑性大变形有限元分析软件计算了均质土坡不同坡角的安全系数,将其与小变形分析的结果进行了对比分析,结果表明：用弹塑性大变形有限元分析边坡失稳破坏的过程中,既考虑了岩土材料的非线性,又考虑了边坡的几何非线性,使计算结果更趋合理。并结合东深供水改造工程BIII2边坡进行了大变形有限元分析,计算结果与勘查到的实际边坡的滑动面分布位置比较接近。研究表明：该方法尤其适宜于软土类边坡或基坑的稳定性分析。     

Permanent seismic deformation analysis of a landslide

A failed slope may not necessarily require a remedial treatment if it can be shown with confidence that the maximum movement of the slide mass will be within tolerable limits, i.e., not cause loss of life or property. A permanent displacement analysis of a landslide for static and seismic conditions is presented using a continuum mechanics approach. Computed values of displacement for static conditions compare favorably with field measurements and computed values of seismic displacements for a postulated earthquake motion appear reasonable. Also, the seismic displacements using the continuum mechanics approach compare favorably with those obtained using the Newmark sliding block procedure for assessing seismically-induced slope deformations.     

Three-dimensional deformation analysis: Global vector spherical harmonic and local finite element representation

Deformation elements which have global support, such as tidal induced displacements, are represented in terms of vector spherical harmonics. In contrast, local strain and local rotation are represented in terms of irregularly shaped three-dimensional finite elements. These geodetic finite elements reflect the structure of a geodetic network which is arbitrarily shaped. Various continuity classes are discussed. Numerical examples are presented.