Buoyancy in tropical cyclones and other rapidly rotating atmospheric vortices

Motivated primarily by its application to understanding tropical-cyclone intensification and maintenance, we re-examine the concept of buoyancy in rapidly rotating vortices, distinguishing between the buoyancy of the symmetric balanced vortex or system buoyancy, and the local buoyancy associated with cloud dynamics. The conventional definition of buoyancy is contrasted with a generalized form applicable to a vortex, which has a radial as well as a vertical component. If, for the special case of axisymmetric motions, the balanced density and pressure distribution of a rapidly rotating vortex are used as the reference state, the buoyancy field then characterizes the unbalanced density perturbations, i.e. the local buoyancy. We show how to determine such a reference state without approximation.The generation of the toroidal circulation of a vortex, which is necessary for vortex amplification, is characterized in the vorticity equation by the baroclinicity vector. This vector depends, inter-alia, on the horizontal (or radial) gradient of buoyancy evaluated along isobaric surfaces. We show that for a tropical-cyclone-scale vortex, the buoyancy so calculated is significantly different from that calculated at constant height or on surfaces of constant σ (σ = (p − p^*)/(p_s − p^*), where p is the actual pressure, p^* some reference pressure and p_s is the surface pressure). Since many tropical-cyclone models are formulated using σ-coordinates, we examine the calculation of buoyancy on σ-surfaces and derive an expression for the baroclinicity vector in σ-coordinates. The baroclinic forcing term in the azimuthal vorticity equation for an axisymmetric vortex is shown to be approximately equal to the azimuthal component of the curl of the generalized buoyancy. A scale analysis indicates that the vertical gradient of the radial component of generalized buoyancy makes a comparatively small contribution to the generation of toroidal vorticity in a tropical cyclone, but may be important in tornadoes and possibly also in dust devils.We derive also a form of the Sawyer–Eliassen equation from which the toroidal (or secondary) circulation of a balanced vortex may be determined. The equation is shown to be the time derivative of the toroidal vorticity equation in which the time rate-of-change of the material derivative of potential toroidal vorticity is set to zero. In analogy with the general case, the diabatic forcing term in the Sawyer–Eliassen equation is shown to be approximately equal to the time rate-of-change of the azimuthal component of the curl of generalized buoyancy.Finally, we discuss the generation of buoyancy in tropical cyclones and contrast the definitions of buoyancy that have been used in recent studies of tropical cyclones. We emphasize the non-uniqueness of the buoyancy force, which depends on the choice of a reference density and pressure, and note that different, but equivalent interpretations of the flow dynamics may be expected to arise if different reference quantities are chosen.     

冷涡背景下辽宁龙卷气候特征和环境条件

为了研究冷涡与辽宁龙卷的关系,揭示冷涡背景下辽宁龙卷发生的特征,利用1951—2020年辽宁省龙卷观测和灾情数据以及欧洲中期天气预报中心ERA5大气再分析资料,收集整理冷涡背景下辽宁龙卷个例,对比冷涡背景下EF2—4级(EF2+)和EF0—1级(EF1?)龙卷物理量参数的差异.结果表明:(1)冷涡背景下辽宁龙卷主要出现...     

2003年7月8日安徽系列龙卷的新一代天气雷达分析

利用合肥新一代天气雷达资料对2003年7月8日夜间发生在安徽庐江和无为县的龙卷过程进行了简要的分析。7月8日夜间至9日凌晨，与一条自西向东移动的、被包裹在大片层状雨区中的带状对流(飑线)相联系，先后有4个径向速度场上明显的小尺度涡旋特征出现在飑线的前沿。其中一个小尺度涡旋特征持续了大约2小时30分，先后在庐江和无为县产生了龙卷。特别是在无为产生的龙卷，造成了严重的生命和财产损失，其级别为F2～F3，属于较强龙卷。分析表明，此次龙卷为非超级单体龙卷，在反射率因子图上几乎没有任何特征，而在径向速度图上呈现为明显的小尺度涡旋特征，说明新一代天气雷达的使用大大增强了对龙卷的探测能力。     

Rayleigh-Bénard convection as a tool for studying dust devils

Intense columnar vortices in a convecting layer are explored with direct numerical simulations that are otherwise similar to the large-eddy simulations of6, Q. J. R. Meteorol. Soc. 126, 2789–2810). With free-slip boundaries and a Rayleigh number of 10⁶(4096 times critical), vortices similar to large dust devils are readily produced. The genesis, intensity and life cycle of these intense vortices (dust devils) are studied. The simulated dust devils last for the order of the over-turning time of the largest eddies. The intensity is limited by the hydrostatic pressure drop supported by the buoyancy confined in the core. The genesis of a simulated dust devil requires not only tilting of the baroclinically generated vorticity, but also a symmetry-breaking event that allows one sign of vorticity to become concentrated in an updraft. Such symmetry breaking is the rule with random initialization in the simulations. However, when initialization is restricted to certain Fourier modes, exceptions are found that produce only symmetric vortex couplets that are relatively weak.     

基于随机森林的组网雷达龙卷检测算法

近年来我国极端灾害性天气频发,造成了重大人员伤亡和财产损失,随着防灾减灾工作的推进,龙卷等中小尺度强对流灾害性天气的预警预报工作的关注度正逐步提升。现有龙卷检测算法基于对新一代天气雷达基数据在多个仰角和体积扫描中进行阈值判断得到龙卷涡旋特征TVS,在自适应协同观测背景下表现为自适应策略同步较慢,预警预报准确率不高,提前预警时间短。使用机器学习算法结合龙卷在雷达反射率、径向速度和速度谱宽的多重特征能有效提高龙卷识别的准确率和预警时间,能提高组网雷达的协同观测能力。基于随机森林的龙卷检测算法（TDA-RF）,使用CINRAD雷达历史龙卷数据作为训练集,通过随机森林算法对训练集进行分类学习得到龙卷预测模型,使用预测模型对实时雷达数据进行龙卷检测。试验结果表明,TDARF算法能有效识别不同强度的龙卷,较TVS龙卷检测算法能给出龙卷区域的分类概率值,无需对龙卷特征时空连续性进行判断;TDA-RF算法对多个特征进行综合判断具有较好的抗干扰能力,使基于组网雷达的龙卷预警时间最高可达18分钟。     

Simulation of Terrestrial Dust Devil Patterns

Introducing the surface properties [initial vortex, ground temperature and surface momentum impact height (SMIH)] for the boundary conditions, dust-devil-scale large eddy simulations (LES) were carried out. Given three parameters of initial vortex, ground temperature and the SMIH based on Sinclair's observation, the dust devil physical characteristics, such as maximum tangential velocity, updraft velocity, pressure drop in the inner core region, and even reverse flow at the top of the core region, are predicted, and are found to be close to the observations, thus demonstrating the ability of the simulation. The physical characteristics of different modeled dust devils are reproduced and compared to the values predicted by Renno et al.' theory. Even for smaller temperature differences or weaker buoyancy, severe dust devils may be formed by strong incipient vortices. It is also indicated that SMIH substantially affects the near-surface shape of terrestrial dust devils.     

皖北两次龙卷过程对比分析

利用常规资料、NCEP再分析资料、高密度地面自动站资料、多普勒天气雷达资料,对安徽省灵璧县和泗县发生的两次龙卷过程进行对比分析。结果表明：龙卷风发生在低空急流的北端左侧以及高湿中心和水汽辐合中心的交汇处;龙卷风发生前低层垂直风切变强烈;龙卷风发生在地面辐合最强的地方,为判断龙卷风可能发生的区域提供了线索;龙卷风发生前10～20 min均有龙卷涡旋特征报警,同时有中等强度中气旋配合;灵璧龙卷风出现在母体风暴的南端,强回波在3 km以下;泗县龙卷风发生在带状回波的中部,中气旋由弱发展为中等强度后一个体扫龙卷出现,龙卷风发生时强回波有断裂和突前以及中气旋顶高下降的特征。     

广东两次台风龙卷的环境背景和雷达回波对比

利用常规气象观测、广州多普勒天气雷达及NCEP/NCAR再分析等资料对比广东省佛山市2015年10月4日EF3级和2006年8月4日EF2级台风外围强龙卷过程。结果表明:两次强龙卷都发生在登陆台风的东北象限,低层辐合、高层辐散及中低空强劲东南急流在珠江三角洲叠加是其产生的相似环境背景。环境参数均表现为较小的对流有效位能、低的对流抑制与抬升凝结高度、强的垂直风切变和大的风暴相对螺旋度。两个龙卷母体均为微型超级单体,前者雷达回波强度更强,钩状回波特征更明显;都存在强中气旋和龙卷涡旋特征（TVS）,中气旋都在中低层形成后,向更低层发展最终导致龙卷。TVS比龙卷触地提前1个体扫出现,或与龙卷触地同时发生,中气旋和TVS的底高和顶高均很低。但两次龙卷触地前后,前者中气旋和TVS的底高和顶高出现突降现象,而后者中气旋和TVS的底高和顶高一直维持较低高度。龙卷触地前后,两者风暴单体的最强切变均出现剧增现象,但前者TVS的最强切变更强,比后者大1倍以上。     

云滴数浓度对超级单体龙卷影响的数值模拟研究

为了探讨云滴数浓度对于龙卷发生、发展的影响,利用ARPS（Advanced Regional Prediction System）模式,通过调整云滴数浓度（分别取高3000 cm-3、中1000 cm-3和低100 cm-3）的变化,对2003年7月8日安徽省无为县超级单体龙卷进行理想模拟试验。研究表明:三组试验都模拟出超级单体风暴的特征结构如钩状回波和V型入流缺口;云滴数浓度高的试验中上升气流更强、风暴较先发展且持续时间长,近地面涡度也较其他两组试验更大;从三组试验中找到4个龙卷涡旋,其中云滴数浓度高的试验中有两个,涡旋总持续时间接近30 min,最大近地面风速为46.93 m s-1,最大涡度值为0.42 s-1;高云滴数浓度情况下地面冷池弱,更有利于龙卷产生,并对龙卷的发生、发展有促进作用。     

Analytical Quantification of Carbon Dioxide Exchange Mediated by Spume Droplets

Tornado-like vortices are simulated in a large-scale Ward-type simulator to further advance the understanding of such flows, and to facilitate future studies of tornado wind loading on structures. Measurements of the velocity fields near the simulator floor and the resulting floor surface pressures are interpreted to reveal the mean and fluctuating characteristics of the flow as well as the characteristics of the static-pressure deficit. We focus on the manner in which the swirl ratio and the radial Reynolds number affect these characteristics. The transition of the tornado-like flow from a single-celled vortex to a dual-celled vortex with increasing swirl ratio and the impact of this transition on the flow field and the surface-pressure deficit are closely examined. The mean characteristics of the surface-pressure deficit caused by tornado-like vortices simulated at a number of swirl ratios compare well with the corresponding characteristics recorded during full-scale tornadoes.     

尘卷风的形成、结构和卷起沙尘过程的数值研究

文中应用数值算法对尘卷风的发展过程进行了模拟计算与分析。通过模拟计算得到了尘卷风的内部详细结构和运动过程。研究表明尘卷风是由于地面局部增热不均匀而形成的一种特殊的旋转对流运动。在尘卷风形成的过程中 ,外围空气通过贴近地面的薄层被地面加热后流向中心部位 ,外围空气的旋转能量在中心部位得到加强形成尘卷风 ,其旋转能量是热泡原来具有的旋转能量的局部集中和一部分势能转化而形成的 ,其旋转方向是由热对流泡的初始旋转方向所决定。尘卷风是一种类兰金涡 ,旋转速度和压力的分布具有兰金组合涡的特点 ;在成熟阶段 ,尘卷风的详细结构可以粗略地分为 4个区域———地面附近的气流汇聚区域、柱状的涡核区域、旋风与地面作用形成的转角风区域以及涡核外部的外围气流区域。转角区域可以细分为两个子区域———外围的方位角风区域(在该区域 ,上升气流运动方向与轴线之间有一定的夹角 ,称为方位角 )和中心的下沉停滞气流区域。尘卷风中心的低压和急速的上升气流可使大量沙尘扬起 ,不同直径的沙尘颗粒在尘卷风的作用下运动轨迹不同 ,因此卷起不同大小沙尘的尘卷风的外形也是不同的。     

豫东南龙卷风时空分布和灾害特征

根据中国气象灾害大典、年鉴、全国与河南省气候影响评价等文献,对豫东南区域1949-2011年30次龙卷风的历史记录逐个进行了时空分析和富士达分级：63 a来发生于6、7月的龙卷风占总次数的2/3;20世纪80年代集中发生在1984年和1986年,90年代仅1990、1993年没有发生,21世纪前10 a主要是2005年的3次（均为F1级）。有24个县（市）曾有龙卷风光顾过,发生最多的汝南和潢川曾遭遇过5次龙卷风袭击,其他县（市）分别出现1～4次不等。灾害特征是较低级别的F0和F1等级较多,F2等级较少,但发生的概率和强度等级均高于豫西。     

一次黄海之滨中尺度对流复合体多尺度结构特征观测研究

2006年7月3日傍晚到4日凌晨,苏北到黄海的一个中尺度对流复合体(MCC)产生了系列龙卷、直线型对流大风和强降水,利用常规高空地面观测、区域自动气象站、卫星云图以及多普勒天气雷达资料,详细分析此次中尺度对流复合体的结构和产生的天气背景。主要结论如下:(1)该中尺度对流复合体高层为对应分离背景场的强辐散,中层在副热带高压西北侧和500 hPa东移的短波槽前,地面位于锋面气旋暖区内;该中尺度对流复合体发生在中等到强的对流有效位能、强的深层(0—6 km)和低层(0—1 km)风垂直切变环境下;(2)该中尺度对流复合体主要垂直环流特征为:近地层东南气流和其上的中低层西南暖湿气流从对流复合体南部流入到复合体中心,复合体后部对流层中低层和中层为较干冷的西北气流夹卷进入中尺度对流复合体,导致降水蒸发冷却形成强烈下沉气流,产生带有西北风动量的下沉气流,到地面形成β中尺度冷池,冷池与周边暖湿气流的交界处为β中尺度阵风锋,同时中尺度对流复合体位于对流层低层到地面部分形成深厚冷池导致的雷暴高压,阵风锋前部有β中尺度暖低压;中尺度对流复合体中高层由于水汽凝结潜热释放加热形成暖心结构,位于对流层中层的主要特征为β中尺度气旋性涡旋对应的中尺度低压,对流层高层存在β中尺度辐散反气旋环流;(3)多普勒天气雷达探测揭示该中尺度对流复合体成熟阶段主要呈现为线性结构,主要构成是一条尺度在150—200 km的活跃弓形飑线,还有数条较弱的呈气旋性弯曲的对流雨带,雨带旋入共同的涡旋中心,该涡旋中心与地面锋面气旋的中心相对应(重合),同时也是相应中尺度对流复合体的β中尺度气旋的中心,直径为40—60 km;(4)在上述活跃弓形飑线的前侧出现多个中尺度涡旋,4个EF2级龙卷和3个EF1级龙卷都发生在这些中尺度涡旋内,导致龙卷的中尺度涡旋水平尺度为4—5 km,旋转速度接近超级单体的强中气旋旋转速度,垂直伸展比超级单体中气旋浅薄,形成机制也与超级单体中气旋有明显差异;(5)该中尺度对流复合体成熟阶段的云系尺度为1000 km,其中低于220 K (-52℃)冷云盖的尺度在400 km左右,其内部结构的主要构成是一条150—200 km长的活跃弓形飑线,地面β中尺度冷池和阵风锋,沿着弓形飑线前侧出现多个尺度为4—5 km的中尺度涡旋,其中部分中尺度涡旋导致尺度只有几十至几百米的EF1和EF2级龙卷,呈现出明显的多尺度结构特征。      

中国龙卷时空分布及其环境物理量特征

利用2004—2012年《中国气象灾害年鉴》和CFSR再分析资料,研究中国龙卷的时空分布以及三个龙卷频发区的环流背景场和环境物理量特征,并比较他们之间的区域差异。结果表明:中国龙卷多发生于春夏季,午后傍晚较多,江苏和广东等平原地区出现龙卷概率最高。龙卷临近时,“江苏及其邻近地区”位于500 hPa槽前,850 hPa上有西南急流,造成了较强的低层垂直风切变;“广东及其邻近地区”在龙卷发生前地面对流有效位能均值达997.3 J/kg,0~1 km螺旋度均值达91 m2/s2,层结不稳定,动力抬升强;“东北地区”受深厚东北冷涡控制,整层水汽含量低,中低层比湿均值小于10 g/kg。通过比较环境物理量平均场的分布特征发现:螺旋度、垂直风切变、能量螺旋度指数和强龙卷参数对分析龙卷发生有很好的指示意义。“东北地区”对流有效位能和比湿均值远低于“江苏及其邻近地区”和“广东及其邻近地区”,但高低空的温度直减率大、中低层的垂直风切变强,该地区也会产生龙卷。      

Single-Doppler Radar Observations of a High Precipitation Supercell Accompanying the 12 April 2003 Severe Squall Line in Fujian Province

In this study,single Doppler radar data were used to examine the structure and evolution of a high precipitation(HP) supercell embedded in a cold front near Jianyang,Fujian Province on 12 April 2003.The synoptic environment was characterized by high humidity at low levels,moderate CAPE(convective available potential energy;1601 J kg~(-1)),moderate wind shear(22 m s~(-1) in 0-5 km),and veering of the horizontal winds with height,similar to those HP supercells previously observed in midlatitudes.In additio...     

干旱半干旱地区尘卷风研究进展

尘卷风是一种发生在对流边界层的垂直涡旋,多发生在干旱半干旱地区,其旋转过程中强上升气流携带大量沙尘粒子,成为沙尘气溶胶排放的一个重要起沙过程。然而,相对于沙尘暴研究,目前对尘卷风及大气边界层的起沙过程的认知相当有限。从尘卷风发生的时空变化、边界层特征、形成原因和输沙量4个方面对尘卷风当前研究状况进行总结,并指出当前尘卷风研究重点及未来研究方向。     

Investigation into the Formation,Structure, and Evolution of an EF4 Tornado in East China Using a High-Resolution Numerical Simulation

Devastating tornadoes in China have received growing attention in recent years, but little is known about their formation, structure, and evolution on the tornadic scale. Most of these tornadoes develop within the East Asian monsoon regime, in an environment quite different from tornadoes in the U.S. In this study, we used an idealized, highresolution (25-m grid spacing) numerical simulation to investigate the deadly EF4 (Enhanced Fujita scale category 4) tornado that occurred on 23 June 2016 and claimed 99 lives in Yancheng, Jiangsu Province. A tornadic supercell developed in the simulation that had striking similarities to radar observations. The violent tornado in Funing County was reproduced, exceeding EF4 (74 m s^–1), consistent with the on-site damage survey. It was accompanied by a funnel cloud that extended to the surface, and exhibited a double-helix vorticity structure. The signal of tornado genesis was found first at the cloud base in the pressure perturbation field, and then developed both upward and downward in terms of maximum vertical velocity overlapping with the intense vertical vorticity centers. The tornado’s demise was found to accompany strong downdrafts overlapping with the intense vorticity centers. One of the interesting findings of this work is that a violent surface vortex was able to be generated and maintained, even though the simulation employed a free-slip lower boundary condition. The success of this simulation, despite using an idealized numerical approach, provides a means to investigate more historical tornadoes in China.     

A Brief Discussion on the High-Impact Cold-Season Tornado Outbreak During 10-11 December 2021 in the United States

An outbreak of powerful tornadoes tore through multiple states in the central and southern United States from 10 to 11 December 2021. It is claimed the deadliest tornado outbreak that has taken place on December days. The National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration had confirmed 66 tornadoes as of 21 December, producing at least 90 fatalities. Most tornadoes occurred at night and thus they were difficult to be visually located, which directly increases the risk for local residents. Two violent nighttime tornadoes were rated category 4 on the enhanced Fujita scale (EF4). Although a high death toll was caused during this event, the operational service actually presented an excellent performance. This tornado outbreak has aroused extensive discussion from both the public and the research community in China. This paper presents a brief discussion on the formation environment and warning services of the tornado outbreak. Recall the deadliest violent tornado in the past 45 years in China, the radar-based tornadic vortex signatures at the locations with EF4 damages show a comparable strength with those in the current cases. Some views on the tornado warning issuance and receiving and damage surveys in China are also presented.     

两次台风衍生龙卷的环境背景和雷达特征对比分析

利用ECMWF高分辨率再分析资料及广州多普勒天气雷达资料,对1522号台风"彩虹"外围衍生的广州番禺龙卷和1806 号台风"艾云尼"外围衍生的广州南沙龙卷进行对比分析,同时还挑选了一个未发生龙卷的台风做外围环境参数对比.结果表明:两次强龙卷都发生在登陆台风的东北象限,中低空急流明显、低层辐合、高层辐散在珠江三角洲地区叠...     

2015年10月4日佛山龙卷过程的观测分析

受1522号台风彩虹外围螺旋云带影响,2015年10月4日15时28分—16时（北京时）广东佛山出现了EF3级强龙卷并造成严重灾害。为了综合分析龙卷发生的多尺度环境背景场和龙卷的结构及强度变化等特点,进行了灾情调研,航拍龙卷灾情路径,走访龙卷目击者,确认龙卷路径及灾情级别,再结合多渠道获取的龙卷视频照片等资料以及观测资料进行分析研究,结果表明:（1）产生此次龙卷的超级单体存在于台风彩虹外围螺旋云带内;龙卷向西北偏北方向移动,触地时长为32 min,受灾路径长度为31.7 km,最大受灾直径为577 m,平均速度约为60 km/h,具有“移动速度快,影响范围广,破坏力强”的特点,其移动速度快慢似与超级单体强度和地面的粗糙度有关。（2）佛山地区中高层受偏南气流控制,水汽充足,地面有弱冷空气;珠三角喇叭口地形有利于气流的辐合与局地涡旋的产生;抬升凝结高度低,风垂直切变大,有利于龙卷的生成。（3）地面自动气象站气象要素表现出受龙卷环流影响的特征。3 s极大风速的大值带和3 s最低气压的低值带以及1 h累计降水大值中心呈现出与龙卷走向一致的东南—西北向带状分布;龙卷到来时其周围自动气象站气温和气压明显降低,风速明显增大,风向明显改变;降水在龙卷靠近前5—10分钟就开始明显增大,其大值中心位于龙卷路径的西侧。龙卷离开后气压比龙卷来临前有所升高,但气温较前降低。（4）龙卷出现在钩状回波前进方向的右后侧;降水大值区与雷达组合反射率大值区基本一致。地面风场的辐合中心与龙卷触地的位置基本一致,并且钩状回波的入流区与地面偏东风区相对应。龙卷风暴单体发展高度在4 km左右,具有低重心对流的特点。其前部存在回波悬垂,一条很窄的向西北倾斜的回波大值带可能与龙卷漏斗云墙有关。对应径向速度剖面图上为一条向西北倾斜的正、负速度交界区,构成一个逆时针旋转的涡旋带,切向剖面图上存在较强的辐合。（5）龙卷发展过程中伴随着龙卷风暴顶和风暴底的逐渐下降以及单体质心的下降,中气旋与龙卷涡旋特征的顶和底也随之逐渐下降。龙卷风涡旋特征的顶高和底高都略低于中气旋,并在龙卷触地时降至最低。龙卷涡旋的切变值远大于中气旋的切变值,且在龙卷强度最强时最大。