Characteristics of low frequency oscillations of the atmosphere-ocean coupling

The low frequency oscillation of latent heat flux over the tropical oceans has been studied. The NCEP reanalyzed fields of wind and humidity alongwith Reynolds SST are used to compute the instantaneous as well as monthly mean surface latent heat fluxes (LHF) for the year 1999. The procedure of LHF computation is based on bulk method. Spectral analysis shows that significant energy is contained in Madden Julian Oscillation band in the winds, SST, moisture and in the latent heat flux. The global distribution of wind, humidity, SST and LHF oscillation on the time scale of 30–50 days are analyzed. Maximum amplitude of oscillation on this time scale in all the above mentioned parameters were found over the Indian Ocean. The fluctuation of surface wind speed and moisture controls the latent heat flux on this time scale. The fluctuation of SST on this time scale does not seem to be important over most of the oceans.     

2009/2010年黄河源区高寒草甸下垫面能量平衡特征分析

以青藏高原黄河源玛多为实验区, 基于TRM-ZS1气象生态环境监测仪2009年11月1日至2010年10月31日辐射及能量通量观测数据, 采用波文比能量平衡法, 进行了该区域潜热和感热通量的估算, 分析了黄河源区高寒草甸下垫面辐射收支, 潜热、 感热和土壤热通量在不同季节的分配, 对该区域冬季地面加热场强度的变化进行了研究.结果表明: 该区域总辐射、 净辐射较强, 总辐射平均日积分值为18.06 MJ·m^-2·d^-1, 净辐射平均日积分值5.95 MJ·m^-2·d^-1, 曾观测到高达979.5 W·m^-2的净辐射通量.全年地表平均反射率为0.30, 接近于荒漠和半荒漠下垫面的反射率.植物生长季土壤湿度和冬、 春季地面积雪是影响该区域地表反射率的两个最主要因素.该区域感热通量年积分值为742.68 MJ·m^-2·a^-1, 潜热通量年积分值为1 388.58 MJ·m²·a^-1, 全年中地表以潜热方式传递热量为主.分季节分析, 冬季感热潜热强度相当, 春季以感热为主, 夏秋季则以潜热为主.土壤热通量年积分值为38.06 MJ·m^-2·a^-1, 全年热通量在热量平衡中约占1.8%, 但季节分配不平衡, 在冬季, 有|G|>H+LE, 土壤热通量是热平衡最大的分量.该区域地表全年向大气释放热量, 地表对大气而言是热源.     

青藏高原地区能量水分循环：地表能量平衡和湍流热通量

文章给出了青藏高原能量水分循环研究的概况和总结，着重估计了能量平衡各分项和湍流热通量等。在能量平衡的计算基础上，尽管能量不平衡的原因解释仍有争论并且没有解决，但我们揭示了GAME/Tibet试验观测资料中能量不平衡现象。我们发现估算的潜热通量比实际观测的要高许多。然而，根据能量平衡假设的计算结果和SEBS的估算一致性很好。在此基础上可以归纳出差异主要由GAME/Tibet试验观测资料中能量不平衡引起，潜热通量的实际观测可能偏小。     

Radiation and energy balance dynamics over young chir pine (Pinus roxburghii) system in Doon of western Himalayas

The regional impacts of future climate changes are principally driven by changes in energy fluxes. In this study, measurements on micrometeorological and biophysical variables along with surface energy exchange were made over a coniferous subtropical chir pine (Pinus roxburghii) plantation ecosystem at Forest Research Institute, Doon valley, India. The energy balance components were analyzed for two years to understand the variability of surface energy fluxes, their drivers, and closure pattern. The period covered two growth cycles of pine in the years 2010 and 2011 without and with understory growth. Net short wave and long wave radiative fluxes substantially varied with cloud dynamics, season, rainfall induced surface wetness, and green growth. The study clearly brought out the intimate link of albedo dynamics in chir pine system with dynamics of leaf area index (LAI), soil moisture, and changes in understory background. Rainfall was found to have tight linear coupling with latent heat fluxes. Latent heat flux during monsoon period was found to be higher in higher rainfall year (2010) than in lower rainfall year (2011). Higher or lower pre-monsoon sensible heat fluxes were succeeded by noticeably higher or lower monsoon rainfall respectively. Proportion of latent heat flux to net radiation typically followed the growth curve of green vegetation fraction, but with time lag. The analysis of energy balance closure (EBC) showed that the residual energy varied largely within ±30% of net available energy and the non-closure periods were marked by higher rainspells or forced clearance of understory growths.     

青藏高原多年冻土区地表能量收支过程及其对活动层影响的初步分析

基于2005—2016年青藏高原多年冻土区唐古拉和西大滩站的气象、涡动通量以及活动层资料,利用涡动相关法、气象梯度法和SHAW模型等方法探究了气候变化背景下高原多年冻土区地表能量通量变化规律及其对活动层的影响。结果表明：2005—2016年唐古拉和西大滩气温、地气温差有所升高,年降水量、10 cm土壤含水量及风速有所下降。2005年以来唐古拉和西大滩净辐射（R_n ）与感热（H）呈增加趋势,潜热（LE）呈减小趋势,地表土壤热通量（G）变化较小。唐古拉和西大滩地表能量通量季节变化明显,但受海拔、纬度、坡向、土壤冻融过程、降水、下垫面状况等因素的影响,地表能量通量存在区域差异。研究时段内,唐古拉和西大滩地表冻结指数与土壤热通量呈负相关;融化指数、活动层厚度与土壤热通量呈正相关,融化期间土壤热通量积累量与融化深度的变化呈线性增加关系。     

Limitations and improvements of the energy balance closure with reference to experimental data measured over a maize field

The use of energy fluxes data to validate land surface models requires that energy balance closure conservation is satisfied, but usually this condition is not verified when the available energy is bigger than the sum of turbulent vertical fluxes. In this work, a comprehensive evaluation of energy balance closure problems is performed on a 2012 data set from Livraga obtained by a micrometeorological eddy covariance station located in a maize field in the Po Valley. Energy balance closure is calculated by statistical regression of turbulent energy fluxes and soil heat flux against available energy. Generally, the results indicate a lack of closure with a mean imbalance in the order of 20%. Storage terms are the main reason for the unclosed energy balance but also the turbulent mixing conditions play a fundamental role in reliable turbulent flux estimations. Recently introduced in literature, the energy balance problem has been studied as a scale problem. A representative source area for each flux of the energy balance has been analyzed and the closure has been performed in function of turbulent flux footprint areas. Surface heterogeneity and seasonality effects have been studied to understand the influence of canopy growth on the energy balance closure. High frequency data have been used to calculate co-spectral and ogive functions, which suggest that an averaging period of 30 min may miss temporal scales that contribute to the turbulent fluxes. Finally, latent and sensible heat random error estimations are computed to give information about the measurement system and turbulence transport deficiencies.     

春末黄土高原半干旱区地表能量闭合的观测研究

利用兰州大学半干旱气候与环境监测站的连续观测数据,分析了该站的数据质量情况和黄土高原半干旱区的近地层湍流通量特征及地表能量平衡能量闭合状况.结果表明:兰州大学半干旱气候与环境监测站(SACOL)湍流通量的平均时间取30min为宜.该站利用EdiRe获得的湍流通量较TK2和CR5000数据自动记录器输出的湍流通量结果要好.黄土高原半干旱区近地层湍流能量与地表含水量状况明显相关,地表干燥时感热通量处于主导地位,接近于干旱区的特征;地表湿润时感热通量和潜热通量则相当,接近于湿润地区的特征.地表能量平衡分析表明,兰州大学黄土高原半干旱环境监测站观测的地表能量闭合度高达85%,与已有的观测相比,能量闭合情况属于较好水平.     

青藏高原复杂地表能量通量研究

“全球能量水循环之亚洲季风青藏高原试验研究”（GAME/Tibet）和“全球协调加强观测计划（CEOP）亚澳季风之青藏高原试验研究”（CAMP/Tibet）的加强期观测和长期观测已经进行了9年多,并且已取得了大量的珍贵资料。首先介绍了GAME/Tibet 和CAMP/Tibet 试验的情况,并利用观测资料给出了局地能量分布（日变化和月际变化）特征。复杂地表区域能量通量研究是青藏高原地气相互作用研究中的重中之重。卫星遥感的应用成为解决这一问题,即实现GAME/Tibet和CAMP/Tibet试验主要初衷的必不可少的手段。利用卫星遥感观测（Landsat 7 ETM）资料结合地面观测的方法,计算得到了相关地区非均匀地表区域上的地表温度、地表反射率、标准化差值植被指数(NDVI)、校准的调整土壤植被指数（MSAVI）、植被覆盖度和叶面指数(LAI)及能量平衡各分量（净辐射通量、土壤热通量、感热和潜热通量）的分布图像,所得结果基本可信。为了得到整个青藏高原复杂地表的热通量分布,中国科学院青藏高原研究所正在与其他研究单位一起建立青藏高原地表和大气过程监测系统（MORP）。最后介绍了该监测计划和已建立的3个综合观测研究站及如何利用建立的台站把站点观测的热通量推广到整个青藏高原的途径。     

Simulations of energy balance components at snow-dominated montane watershed by land surface models

The quantification of energy interactions among land surface, atmosphere, and surface vegetation is significant to comprehend the hydrological cycle in montane watersheds. Moreover, elevation change is an essential in causing variations in energy fluxes. Thus, estimating the major components of energy interactions is essential for better understanding of the hydrological process. The advanced land surface models (LSMs); the common land model (CLM) and variables infiltration capacity (VIC) are used to estimate accurate hydrometeorological variables. These hydrometeorological variables such as net radiation and sensible, latent, and ground heat fluxes were estimated using CLM and VIC at upper and lower meteorological stations in Sierra Nevada Mountain, California, USA. The estimated fluxes were compared with observations at each site. The estimated daily and monthly net radiation and sensible heat flux from both models showed good agreement with the observations (R ≥ 0.84). The CLM-modeled estimates showed lower trends during the rainfall periods, which occurred mainly during winter at both sites. In comparison, the estimated daily and monthly latent heat flux from CLM at both sites showed better results with lower RMSE and bias than that from VIC, which underestimated latent heat flux. Both models overestimated ground heat flux, and the variation trend was similar to observation. For sensitivity analysis, according to elevation change, all the estimated energy fluxes had slightly different values at the upper and lower met stations. In future studies, parameterization for the LSMs will be conducted for more robust estimations of hydrometeorological variables in montane watersheds.     

Assessment of large aperture scintillometry for large-area surface energy fluxes over an irrigated cropland in north India

Amount of available net energy and its partitioning into sensible, latent and soil heat fluxes over an agricultural landscape are critical to improve estimation of evapotranspiration and modelling parse (ecosystem modelling, hydrological and meteorological modelling). Scintillometry is a peculiar and robust methodology to provide structure parameter of refractive index and energy balance. Scintillometer has proven for assessment of sensible and latent heat flux, which is based on the principle of Monin–Obukhov similarity theory. Scintillometer has been installed in the agricultural experimental farm of ICAR-Indian Agricultural Research Institute, New Delhi, with a spatial covering path length of 990 m of irrigated and cultivable agricultural landscape. This paper discusses the patterns of energy flux as diurnal and seasonal basis at scintillometer path which was mainly covered by maize in Kharif and wheat in Rabi season during a crop growing seasons of 2014–2015. The biophysical parameters (leaf area, soil moisture, crop height) were recorded at a temporal resolution of fortnight basis along the path length at usual sampling distance. The Bowen ratio value for both Kharif and Rabi season was 0.76 and 0.88, respectively by scintillometer. Leaf area index had a significantly positive correlation with latent heat flux (\(R^{2} =0.80\)) while a significantly negative correlation with sensible heat flux (\(R^{2}{=}-0.79\)). Soil moisture had a significant negative correlation with sensible heat flux (\(R^{2}{=}-0.68\)). The average evapotranspiration from crop land was \(1.58 ~\hbox {mm d}^{-1}\) and total evapotranspiration was 543 mm over the 12 months study period. This study defines that large aperture scintillometer is robust instrument which can evaluate energy flux over a large area with a long term series time domain. Moreover, further studied should be conducted to use in crop simulation modelling, developing of new model with calibration and validation of remote sensing energy balance algorithm, etc.     

Analysis of the Characteristics of Turbulent Flux and Its Footprint Climatology at An Agricultural Site

Based on quality controlled data from eddy covariance system and automatic weather station collected at Guantao farmland site from 2008 to 2010, the characteristics of diurnal, seasonal and annual variations of turbulent flux were reported. The corresponding source areas of flux measurement at different temporal scales were analyzed in detail, using arithmetic-averaged and flux-weighted footprint climatology calculation method, respectively. The main findings are as follows. Firstly, sensible heat and latent heat flux both show consistent diurnal variation throughout the year, while CO₂ fluxes only have significant diurnal variation in growing season with an opposite trend. The seasonal variation of the turbulent flux is mainly affected by the crop type and its growth status in different phenological periods. During growing season, latent heat flux and CO₂ flux are the dominant flux exchange items whose value are significantly higher in their middle growth stage than other ones during which latent heat and CO₂ flux exchange of the summer corn is stronger than winter wheat. Secondly, with combined effects of wind, turbulence and surface condition, the source area of flux measurement change most significantly at daily scale, less obvious at seasonal scale and smallest at annual scale. Finally, compared with arithmetic-averaged footprint climatology method, flux-weighted footprint climatology is a more reasonable method to calculate the source areas of the flux measurement, in that they account for the time change of the actual turbulent flux. The arithmetic-averaged results are most likely to overestimate the size of source area during small observed flux due to its weak turbulent exchange.     

Glacier fluctuations in the Alps and in the tropical Andes

This paper reports on glacier variations in two mountainous regions of the world, the Alps and the tropical Andes. Available records of snout position and glacier mass balance are compared and interpreted on a climatological basis. In both regions, there is a long-term decreasing trend over the 20th century. The yield of this trend is different from one glacier to the other, depending on geographic and geometric characteristics. Analysing the surface energy balance, net all wave radiation is the main energy flux at the glacier surface. The turbulent fluxes represent an important term with strong positive sensible heat flux in the Alps and strong negative latent heat flux (sublimation) in the Andes. Tropical glaciers are sensitive to inter-annual variations in solid precipitation that affects the albedo, whereas Alpine glaciers are strongly influenced by air temperature changes in the Alps. To cite this article: C. Vincent et al., C. R. Geoscience 337 (2005).     

黑河流域不同下垫面水热通量特征分析

"黑河流域遥感—地面观测同步试验"在黑河上中游地区不同下垫面上建立了多个自动气象站和涡动相关仪及大孔径闪烁仪通量观测站。选取草地、森林及农田3种下垫面的观测资料,分析了水、热和CO2通量特征。结果表明:黑河流域内不同下垫面能量收支各分量(净辐射、感热、潜热和土壤热通量等)有明显的日变化特征;各通量观测站观测结果如季节变化趋势等差异明显,反映了不同下垫面地气交换特征的不同。黑河上游阿柔冻融观测站和中游临泽草地站两套大孔径闪烁仪(LAS)的观测与涡动相关仪有关结果有较好的对应关系。结合浅层土壤热储存量的计算等分析了地表能量平衡的闭合情况。LAS观测的感热通量一般大于涡动相关仪的测量值;两者的差异主要由下垫面的非均一性、通量贡献源区大小不同以及影响大气湍流通量观测的涡旋尺度不同等原因引起。     

The annual variations on land surface energy in the northern Tibetan Plateau

It is vital to study the regional heat fluxes in the Tibetan Plateau Area. In this paper, the characteristics of down- and upward short wave radiation fluxes, down- and upward long wave radiation fluxes, net radiation flux, soil heat flux, sensible heat flux, and latent heat in the areas of CAMP/Tibet [coordinated enhansive observating period (CEOP) Asian-Australia Monsoon Project (CAMP) in Tibetan Plateau] are analyzed. Some new concepts about the characteristics of radiation flux budget and land surface energy budget are obtained. An erratum to this article can be found at     

青藏高原地表能量通量的估计

利用1981—2000年逐日气候、植被和土壤基础资料作为输入,以大气—植被相互作用模式（AVIM2）计算了青藏高原0.1°分辨率的年平均地表能量通量的空间分布和季节变化特征。结果显示,年平均地表净辐射通量由高原西南部的100 W/m2减少到东部的70 W/m2左右。高原东南部的林区潜热通量强而感热通量弱,从高原东南向西、向北潜热通量逐渐减少,而感热通量逐渐增大。夏季这种趋势更加显著。冬季除东南部外,高原上广大地区地表能量通量都较低。     

Soil heat flux and day time surface energy balance closure at astronomical observatory,Thiruvananthapuram, south Kerala

Soil heat flux is an important input component of surface energy balance. Estimates of soil heat flux were made in the year 2008 using soil temperature data at Astronomical Observatory, Thiruvananthapuram, south Kerala. Hourly values of soil heat flux from 00 to 24 LST are presented for selected days typical of the winter, pre-monsoon, SW monsoon and NE monsoon seasons. The diurnal variation is characterized by a cross-over from negative to positive values at 0700 h, occurrence of maximum around noon and return to negative values in the late evening. The energy storage term for the soil layer 0–0.05 m is calculated and the ground heat flux G ^? is estimated in all seasons. Daytime surface energy balance at the surface on wet and dry seasons is investigated. The average Bowen’s ratio during the wet and dry seasons were 0.541 and 0.515, respectively indicating that considerable evaporation takes place at the surface. The separate energy balance components were examined and the mean surface energy balance closure was found to be 0.742 and 0.795 for wet and dry seasons, respectively. When a new method that accounts for both soil thermal conduction and soil thermal convection was adopted to calculate the surface heat flux, the energy balance closure was found to be improved. Thus on the land surface under study, the soil vertical water movement is significant.     

不同土壤热通量测算方法的比较及其对地表能量平衡闭合影响的研究

土壤热通量是地表能量平衡的重要分量,对其测算方法的研究对理解能量平衡过程具有十分重要的意义.利用2010年馆陶站土壤热通量等相关观测数据对多种测算土壤热通量的方法:实测土壤热通量和热储存量的结合方法(PlateCal)、热传导方程校正法(TDEC)、谐波分析法(HM)、平均土壤热电偶法(TCAV)、耦合热传导—对流法(ITCC)获取的地表土壤热通量进行了对比分析,并且采用最优方法计算馆陶站2008-2010年的地表土壤热通量,分析了该站土壤热通量日、季节变化特征.主要结论如下:①PlateCal和TDEC法分别为获取土壤热通量的最优观测与计算方法,而HM,TCAV和ITCC法计算结果均不理想;②PlateCal与TDEC法对地表土壤温度均不敏感,而HM法对地表土壤温度则比较敏感,各种地表土壤热通量的观测与计算方法均对土壤湿度敏感;③馆陶站冬小麦、玉米覆盖地表及地表裸露时期的地表土壤热通量均呈现典型的日、季节变化特征,与净辐射变化趋势一致;④考虑热储存后,可将馆陶站2010年各月地表能量闭合率提高4％～11％,对2008-2010年的年能量平衡闭合率提高3％～5％.     

大孔径闪烁仪研究区域地表通量的进展

地表湍流通量包括感热通量和潜热通量的准确测定对天气气候、农业、水文和水资源管理等意义重大。在几公里到几十公里尺度上有代表性的区域湍流通量的观测研究,特别在非均匀下垫面情况下,仍然非常困难。近年来蓬勃发展的大孔径闪烁仪（LAS）为这一问题的解决提供了全新手段。在介绍大孔径闪烁仪原理的基础上,综述了国内外利用大孔径闪烁仪开展区域地表通量观测研究的进展,包括在不同地表的LAS测量与涡动相关方法有关结果的对比,影响测量精度的关键因子分析,以及在区域地表通量遥感估算模型检验中的应用等,最后对大孔径闪烁仪的应用前景进行了展望。     

黄河源鄂陵湖地区辐射收支和地表能量平衡特征研究

利用2010年6-7月鄂陵湖野外试验的近地层观测数据,分析了在不同天气条件下黄河源鄂陵湖地区辐射分量、地表能量分量、土壤温度和反照率的变化特征. 结果表明：不同天气条件下,辐射和地表能量各分量日变化差异较大,晴天、阴天和雨天的地表反照率依次递减,平均反照率约为0.21;观测期内,平均辐射贡献从大到小依次为向上长波、向下长波、向下短波、向上短波,日积分值分别为31.4 MJ·m^-2、25.6 MJ·m^-2、22.4 MJ·m^-2、4.2 MJ·m^-2,净辐射(12.5 MJ·m^-2)占向下短波辐射的55.7%;平均地表能量和土壤温度的变化幅度较晴天小,感热、潜热、0 cm土壤热通量的平均日积分值分别占净辐射的21.2%、43.1%、8.2%;平均土壤温度变化幅度随深度增加逐渐减小,浅层土壤温度峰值较晴天低2 ℃,深层土壤温度相差不大. 云和降水的扰动削弱了向下短波辐射,导致平均感热通量和0 cm土壤热通量的峰值比晴天小,而平均潜热通量的峰值大于晴天. 由于湖泊水体巨大的热容量和水分供应,鄂陵湖地区的气温日较差较小,地表温度变化幅度变小,附近地表温度升高缓慢. 鄂陵湖区的地表能量平衡中,潜热通量占主导,感热和地表土壤热通量次之. 研究结果有助于理解气候变化背景下黄河源区湖泊的能量水分循环过程,为促进该地区光热资源的合理利用和畜牧业的可持续发展提供数据支持.     

兰州马衔山多年冻土区地表能量平衡特征分析

利用兰州马衔山多年冻土区2010年7月1日到2011年6月30日的气象资料, 采用气象梯度法计算了该地区的感热通量和潜热通量, 结合净辐射分析了该地区的地表能量平衡特征.结果表明: 马衔山多年冻土区净辐射呈现明显的年变化特征, 净辐射值较青藏高原西大滩地区略大, 而较唐古拉地区小; 净辐射冬春季主要转化为感热, 而夏秋季主要转化为潜热, 这一特点与青藏高原唐古拉和西大滩地区类似; 潜热年平均值略大于感热年平均值, 这与马衔山多年冻土区沼泽湿地的保护作用及充足的水分条件有关.此外, 地下冰的存在有效地保护了该地区的多年冻土.