Metallogenic specialization of supercontinent cycles: A case study of silver deposits

The distribution of integrated resources of large and superlarge mineral deposits (LSLDs) of silver, where the main part of industrially recoverable silver reserves is concentrated, is compared with the existing model of supercontinent cyclicity over the geological history of the Earth. It is found that each supercontinent cycle (Kenoran, Columbian, Rodinian, Pangean, and Amasian) is particularly expressed in the silver metallogeny. The significant intercycle variations in the numbers of LSLDs, diversity of types of these deposits, accumulated resources, mean tenors of silver in ores, and some other numerically expressible characteristics are revealed. These variations correlate with a number of geohistorical changes in the conditions under which endogenous and exogenous geological processes run.     

Global trends in the evolution of metallogenic processes as a reflection of supercontinent cyclicity

The worldwide distribution of large and superlarge mineral deposits (LSLDs) on a geological time scale is analyzed. It has been established that their formation from Eoarchean to Cenozoic was nonuniform in time. The maxima and minima of ore generation intensity correlate well with global cyclical processes, eventually resulting in the assembly and breakup of supercontinents. The periods of supercontinent amalgamation are characterized by the highest rate of continental crust growth due to the contribution of juvenile sources, a maximum of orogenic activity, and the most intense deposit formation. Periods close to betweencycle boundaries are distinguished by a low intensity of both endogenic and ore-forming processes. As follows from the available data, the number of known LSLDs slightly decreases from the Kenoran to Columbian cycle, significantly decreases in the next Rodinian cycle, which, in turn, is followed by abrupt growth in the Pangaean and Amasian cycles, especially as concerns LSLDs of the granitoid-related class. The intensification of metallogenic activity correlates with a commensurable increase in orogenic activity of the Earth’s crust probably caused by continental crust expansion, an increase in the number of sialic blocks participating in the formation of accretionary and collisional orogens, and acceleration of lithospheric plate motion. Some trends are also described for other LSLD classes (basic–alkaline, volcanic-hosted massive sulfide, sedimentary, epigenetic sediment-hosted), caused to a certain extent by supercontinent cycles and their evolutionary variations.     

阿尔金造山带青白口纪片麻状花岗岩的厘定及对Rodinia超大陆汇聚时限的制约

阿尔金造山带新元古代花岗岩的研究对探讨该地区Rodinia超大陆汇聚阶段构造演化过程具有重要意义。本文对在亚干布阳一带新厘定的青白口纪片麻状花岗岩开展了详细的岩石学、年代学和岩石地球化学研究。锆石LA-ICP-MS U-Pb年代学证据显示片麻状花岗岩结晶年龄分别为(883.0±3.3)Ma和(883.1±3.3)Ma,说明其侵位于青白口纪。地球化学结果显示,常量元素具有富硅、铝、钾和低钠、镁、钙和钛的特点,具钙碱性-高钾钙碱性、过铝质花岗岩特征。岩石轻稀土分馏较强而重稀土分馏较弱,具有明显的负Eu异常,总体呈右倾的"V"型稀土分配模式。岩石富集Rb、Th、LREE等大离子亲石元素,中等亏损Ba,强烈亏损Nb、Sr、P、Hf、Ti等高场强元素,总体特征显示了典型的壳源花岗岩的特征,其源于地壳变质砂岩部分熔融,形成于同碰撞晚期构造环境,属Rodinia超大陆汇聚阶段的产物。综合研究表明,阿尔金地区新元古代早期同碰撞型岩体的形成时代集中在871～945 Ma,限定了Rodinia超大陆汇聚时限,且在空间上构成了一条重要的岩浆岩带,是对Rodinia超大陆碰撞汇聚作用的响应。     

Geochemistry and geodynamic significance of the rare-earth mineralized Paleoproterozoic Longwangzhuang granite on the southern margin of the North China Craton

The Longwangzhuang granite pluton occurs on the southern margin of the North China Craton and consists mainly of biotite syenogranite with aegirine granite being locally distributed.The granites are characterized by high silicon and alkaline contents(SiO2=72.17%-76.82%,K2O+Na2O=8.28%-10.22%,K2O/Na2O>>1),AI(agpaitic index) =0.84-0.95,DI=95-97,ASI(aluminum saturation index)=0.96-1.13,and very high Fe* number(FeO*/(FeO*+Mg)=0.90-0.99),thus the granites are assigned to the metaluminous to weakly peraluminous,alkalic to calc-alkalic ferroan A-type granites.The granites are rich in large ion lithophile elements(LILE),especially high in REE concentrations(REE+Y=854×10-6-1572×10-6);whereas the enrichment of high strength field elements(Nb,Ta,Zr,Hf) is obviously less than that of LILEs,exhibiting mild depletions on trace element spider plots;and the rocks are significantly depleted in Ba,Sr,Ti,and Pb.The low εNd(t) values(-4.5--7.2) and high model ages(2.3-2.5 Ga) of the granites as well as the low εHf(t) values(-1.11--5.26) and high Hf model ages(THf1= 2.1-2.3 Ga,THf2=2.4-2.6 Ga) of zircons from the biotite syenogranite suggest that the granites were probably derived from an enriched mantle source.The zircons from the biotite syenogranite are mainly colorless transparent crystals exhibiting well-developed oscillatory zoning on the cathodoluminescence images with a LA-ICPMS zircon U-Pb age of 1602.1±6.6 Ma(MSWD=0.48).Petrochemical,trace elements,as well as Nd and Hf isotopic compositions of the rocks demonstrate that the granites were formed in a within-plate extensional tectonic regime possibly related to the breakup of the Columbia supercontinent.The granites were most likely formed through extreme fractional crystallization of alkali basaltic magma resulted from partial melting of the mantle,which was fertilized by recycling crustal rocks triggered by the delamination of lithospheric mantle and lower crust following the ～1.8 Ga collision and amalgamation of the North China Craton which is part of the Columbia supercontinent.However,contamination of neo-Archean to Paleoproterozoic crustal rocks during the ascent and emplacement of the magma could not be excluded.Being the youngest known anorogenic magmatism on the southern margin of the North China Craton related to Columbia breakup,it might represent the break off of the North China Craton from Columbia supercontinent at the end of Paleoproterozoic.     

秦岭造山带中部两河口岩体花岗岩锆石U-Pb年代学、地球化学及地质意义

北秦岭两河口岩体位于太白地区,侵位于秦岭群杂岩中,主要岩性为眼球状花岗岩、片麻状花岗岩和二长花岗岩。 本文研究的眼球状花岗岩和片麻状花岗岩的结晶年龄分别为928±19 Ma 和940±12 Ma,岩石中还保留古元古代至中元古代的 继承锆石。眼球状花岗岩含有富铝矿物石榴子石和白云母。岩石的A/CNK 多大于1.1,具有高Si、富铝的特征,属于高钾钙 碱性系列。岩石轻、重稀土分馏明显,具有中等负Eu 异常。岩石富集大离子亲石元素（Rb, Ba, K 等）、亏损高场强元素 （Nb, Ta, Ti 等）,具有明显的Ba, P, Sr 负异常。矿物学和地球化学特征显示眼球状花岗岩和片麻状花岗岩为S 型花岗岩。两河 口岩体初始Sr 同位素组成变化大,87Sr/86Sr(t)=0.701067~0.739451,具有较低的εNd(t)=-5.7~-3.3, 两阶段Nd 模式年龄为TDM2= 1.9~2.1 Ga。样品具有高的放射成因Pb 同位素组成,指示两河口岩体是壳源成因岩石,其源岩可能为秦岭群斜长角闪岩和 片麻岩。结合区域地质背景,认为两河口岩体源于新元古代陆壳碰撞晚期的构造转换阶段古老中下地壳的熔融作用,是对 Rodinia 超大陆汇聚事件的响应。     

Rare earth elements in granitic rocks

The younger granites in Finland contain more REE than the older ones. In the youngest, postorogenic rapakivi granites, the total REE concentration is highest, the light REE are more enriched, and the negative Eu anomaly is more pronounced than in the older granites. The enrichment of the light REE, the anomalous behavior of the extreme elements (La, Ce, and Lu) in normalized graphs, and the depletion of Eu indicate the degree of differentiation the rock has undergone. These features are usually more pronounced in large, homogeneous granites than in metamorphic or volcanogenic rocks. Silicic vein rocks usually contain less REE than the granites proper; the distribution pattern in many is as in granites, but in some the heavy elements are more enriched. The positive Eu anomaly in Precambrian metamorphic rocks is tentatively attributed to metamorphic differentiation and to the secretion of silicic material from the host rock.     

REE Abundance and REE Minerals in Granitic Rocks in the Nanling Range,Jiangxi Province,Southern China,and Generation of the REE‐rich Weathered Crust Deposits

Studies of Mesozoic granites associated with rare earth element (REE)‐rich weathered crust deposits in southernmost Jiangxi Province indicate that they have high‐K to shoshonite compositions and belong to ilmenite‐series I‐type granites. Of the studied rocks at 59–292 ppm of bulk REE content, the highest are seen in the biotite granites of Dingnan (358, 429 ppm) and mafic biotite granite of the Wuliting Granite (344 ppm) near the Dajishan tungsten mine, both areas where weathered‐crust REE deposits occur. REE‐bearing accessory minerals in these granites are mainly zircon, apatite and allanite, and REE‐fluorocarbonates are common. REE enrichment occurs in the rims of apatite crystals, and in fluorocarbonates that occur along grain boundaries of and cracks in major silicate minerals, and in fluorocarbonates that replaced altered biotite. It is therefore thought that a major part of the REE content of these granites was concentrated during deuteric activity, rather than during magmatic crystallization. The crack‐filling REE‐fluorocarbonates could subsequently have been easily leached out and deposited in weathered crust developed during a long period of exposure.     

利用稀土分布分形结构因子对碱性花岗岩稀土组成分类——以东准噶尔花岗岩为例

尝试用稀土分布的分形结构因子（FSF）值对我国碱性花岗岩的稀土组成进行了分类。可将我国碱性花岗岩的稀土分布分形结构因子划分为4种类型：（1）弱变异型（0．98－0．95）；（2）中变异型（0．95－0．92）；（3）强变异型（0．92－0．89）；（4）超强变异型（0．89－0．86）。其中前两种类型可很好地对应重稀土富集型和中稀土亏损型花岗岩，而后两种类型可对应轻稀土相对富集型和轻稀土特富型花岗岩。利用FSF值对新疆东准噶尔地区三带富碱花岗岩按稀土组成进行了归类。     

REE Tetrad Effects in Rare—metal Granites

Described in this paper are the characteristics of tetrad effects of REE in rare-metal granites.Based on the analytical data and experimental geochemical data available,it is pointed out that the tetrad effects of REE in the granites are produced in the metal-fluid system.Intense fractional crystallization of granitic melt(containing REE accessary minerals)and its interaction with volatile-rich(F,Cl)fluid are the major factors leading to the tetrad effects of REE.From this,this paper presents a composite genetic model for high-degree fractional crystallization-volatile-rich fluid metasomatism of rare-metal granites.With the model,quantitative calculations have been made.Meanwhile,it is pointed out that the tetrad effects of REE can be used as an important indicator to distinguish mineralized granites from barren ones.     

大别山鲁家寨花岗岩地球化学、锆石年代学和Hf同位素特征:扬子克拉通北东缘新元古代岩浆活动证据

对大别山造山带的鲁家寨花岗岩进行了锆石U-Pb年代学、锆石Hf同位素和岩石地球化学研究.锆石LA-ICP-MS U-Pb定年结果表明鲁家寨花岗岩形成于新元古代((816±17)Ma).鲁家寨花岗岩总体具有高硅(SiO2 69.13%～75.47%)、准铝-弱过铝(A/CNK=0.98～1.01)的化学组成特征.稀土元素...     

REE Mineralization of Weathered Crust and Clay Sediment on Granitic Rocks in the Sanyo Belt,SW Japan and the Southern Jiangxi Province,China

Rare earth element (REE) geochemistry and mineralogy have been studied in the weathered crusts derived from the Early Yanshanian (Jurassic) biotite granites of Dabu and Dingnan, as well as in the Indosinian (Permian) muscovite–biotite granite of Aigao in southern Jiangxi province, China, and the weathered crusts and clay sediments on biotite granites in the Sanyo belt, SW Japan, that is, Okayama, Tanakami, and Naegi areas. In all of the weathered crusts, biotite and plagioclase commonly tend to decrease toward the upper part of the profile, whereas kaolinite and residual quartz and K‐feldspar increase. The weathered crusts of the Dingnan granites and some Naegi granites, which are characterized by the enrichment in light REE (LREE) in C horizons, have higher total REE (ΣREE) content than the parent REE‐enriched granites. Weathering of LREE‐bearing apatite and fluorocarbonates in the Dingnan granites and allanite and apatite in some Naegi granites may account for the leaching of LREE at the B horizons. The leached LREE must result in subsequent enrichment of LREE in the C horizons. The enrichment is probably associated with mainly adsorption onto kaolinite and partly formation of possible secondary LREE‐bearing minerals. In Japan it was found that REE mineralization occurs not in the weathered granitic crusts but in reworked clay sediments, especially kaolinite‐rich layers, derived mainly from the weathering materials of REE‐enriched granitic rocks. The clay sediments are more enriched in LREE, which likely adsorbed onto kaolinite. Concentration of heavy REE within almost all the weathered crusts and clay sediments, however, may reflect mainly residual REE‐bearing minerals such as zircon, which originated in the parent granitic rocks. The findings of the present study support the three processes for fractionation of the REE during weathering: (i) selective leaching of rocks containing both stable and unstable REE‐bearing minerals; (ii) adsorption onto clay minerals; and (iii) presence of possible secondary LREE‐bearing minerals.     

Are South China granites special in forming ion-adsorption REE deposits?

Ion-adsorption REE deposits associated with clay minerals are the main global HREE producer. The majority of these deposits are formed by the weathering of granites in South China, but whether there is any fundamental difference between the granites in and outside South China is still unclear. Besides, an effective evaluation system of granite mineralization potential is urgently needed for HREE exploration.To answer this question, we compiled a global granite geochemical dataset from within (n = 1932) and outside (n = 6109) South China, together with a dataset of representative REE deposits in South China (n = 128). The geochemical comparation shows that the South China granites share similar REE contents with those of many granites from places outside South China. Such similarity has also been found between REE ore-related and ore-barren granites in South China. This shows that granites from outside South China could also have ore-forming potential. Warm humid climate and quasi-equalized crustal state promote chemical weathering to continuously leach REEs and store them in the weathering crust. The enrichment ratio (Rx) can be used to quantify the climatic effect between orebodies and parent rocks. The calculated average Enrichment Ratios (Rx) of LREE- and HREE-rich deposits are 2.41 and 2.68, respectively. Sufficient REE content in granite is the prerequisite for mineralization, and we propose that the combination of the minimum REE + Y (172 and 108 ppm in LREE- and HREE-rich parent rocks, respectively) and REE oxide ratio (1.32) can reveal the granite metallogenic potential. Together with the suitable tropical and temperate climate area with ion-adsorption REE deposits, we further identified certain regions with high REE mineralization potential outside South China to assist future exploration.     

内蒙古宝音图钼矿床花岗岩稀土元素地球化学特征及花岗岩成因

宝音图钼矿床是近几年在内蒙古西部地区发现的大型斑岩型钼矿床。重点研究该钼矿床成矿花岗岩稀土元素地球化学特征,探讨花岗岩成因。通过对稀土元素配分模式和特征值（∑REE-LREE/HREE、δEu-LREE/HREE相关性）的分析,对比幔源岩浆及南岭花岗岩稀土元素组成特点,结合岩石化学组成,推断宝音图成矿花岗岩属于陆壳熔融成因花岗岩。由斜长花岗岩→二长花岗岩→钾长花岗岩→细晶花岗岩,岩体成分逐渐变化。岩浆演化中有成分分异,有利于成矿,特别是晚期钾长花岗岩富集成矿元素和矿化剂元素。     

Rare-earth elements as indicators of ore sources and the degree of differentiation and ore potential of rare-metal granite intrusions (eastern Transbaikalia)

The meteoritic-material-normalized REE patterns of rare-metal granite intrusions of the ore-bearing Kukul'bei complex (J2–J3), eastern Transbaikalia, were studied. It is shown that the intrusions were initially enriched in granitophile volatiles and trace elements (rare metals), i.e., this phenomenon is not related to the differentiation of their parental magma chambers. On the differentiation of the Kukul'bei rare-metal intrusions, the REE contents decrease in passing from granites of the main intrusive phase (MP) to late leucocratic differentiates (muscovite and amazonite granites), the differentiates become more enriched in granitophile elements, and their rare-metal contents drastically increase as compared with the MP granites. The ore-bearing bodies of muscovite and amazonite granites have extremely low REE contents and the highest contents of granitophile (including ore-forming) elements.The REE patterns of the Kukul'bei intrusive differentiates are not universal among rare-metal intrusions. By the example of highly ore-bearing rare-metal granite intrusions of the Erzgebirge, Central Europe, it has been established that their late deep-seated differentiates (ultrarare-metal lithionite-zinnwaldite Li-F-granites) accompanied by highly productive Sn-W mineralization concentrate both granitophile elements and REE (particularly HREE). Among the studied Transbaikalian rare-metal intrusions of the Kukul'bei complex, only the differentiates of the most ore-bearing Sherlovaya Gora intrusive system belong to the above type. The analysis of the REE patterns of the Kukul'bei granites confirmed the earlier conclusions on the low ore potential of the rare-metal mineralization of the studied intrusive complex.     

晶质铀矿中稀土元素的岩石学意义

本文通过诸广山岩体、黄龙庙岩体的岩石及其中晶质铀矿稀土元素的研究,得出以下几点认识:晶质铀矿中稀土元素的丰度与其源岩的稀土元素丰度呈正消长关系;晶质铀矿中稀土元素的配分特点与源岩的酸性程度有关;晶质铀矿中稀土元素分馏程度反映了源岩的分异演化程度。     

Li-F花岗岩液态分离的稀土地球化学标志

华南和其他国家典型Ｌｉ－Ｆ花岗岩的１１８个稀土分析研究表明,随Ｌｉ－Ｆ花岗岩由早至晚阶段或自下而上不同岩相演化,稀土模式曲线有三种变化类型：①降低变化,②升高变化,③突然变化等类型。①称为正向演化类型,是结晶分异结果;②称为反向演化类型,代表气液分馏为主的液态分离;③称为演化突变类型,是不混溶为主的液态分离形成。因此,不混溶为主的液态分离标志是稀土模式演化突变类型和Ｌｉ－Ｆ花岗岩在ＲＥＥ－（Ｌａ／Ｙｂ）ｎ、Ｌａ／Ｓｍ－Ｌａ（μｇ／ｇ）图解中主演化方向线与次演化方向线或与成分点呈分离特点。气液分馏为主的液态分离标志是稀土模式反向演化类型和Ｌｉ－Ｆ花岗岩在ＲＥＥ－（Ｌａ／Ｙｂ）ｎ、Ｌａ／Ｓｍ－Ｌａ（μｇ／ｇ）图解中主演化方向线,指向图解的右上方等     

大兴安岭中部柴河地区钾长花岗岩的成因及构造背景:岩石地球化学、锆石U-Pb同位素年代学的制约

对大兴安岭中部柴河林场地区钾长花岗岩进行了系统的地球化学及锆石U-Pb同位素年代学研究,并对其岩石成因及构造意义进行讨论.研究结果表明,柴河林场地区钾长花岗岩中锆石具有典型的岩浆振荡生长环带和较高的Th/U比值(0.44 ～ 1.42),反映了岩浆成因特征.LA-ICP-MS锆石U-Pb定年结果为133±3Ma.岩石具有富硅、稀土元素含量较高、相对富集轻稀土元素亏损重稀土元素的特征,Eu负异常较为明显,稀土元素配分图解具有右斜“V”字型的特征,并相对富集高场强元素和大离子亲石元素.以上特征表明,柴河林场地区钾长花岗岩为铝质A型花岗岩,是地壳岩石部分熔融的产物,具有典型A1型(裂谷或板内)花岗岩的特征,代表了伸展的构造环境.     

祁连山地区花岗质岩浆作用及构造演化

祁连山在构造上是一条经历了多期构造旋回叠加的早古生代复合型造山带,花岗质岩浆作用研究对揭示其构造演化具有重要意义。锆石U-Pb年代学统计结果表明,祁连地区花岗质岩浆活动可以分为7个大的阶段,包括古元古代早期(2 470~2 348 Ma)、古元古代晚期(1 778~1 763 Ma)、中元古代晚期-新元古代早期(1 192~888 Ma)、新元古代中期(853~736 Ma)、中寒武世-志留纪(516~419 Ma),泥盆纪-早石炭世(418~350 Ma)以及中二叠世-晚三叠世(271~211 Ma)。其中古元古代早期发育强过铝质高钾钙碱性S型和准铝质低钾拉斑-高钾钙碱性I型花岗岩,记录了早期的陆壳增生及改造事件。古元古代晚期为准铝质-弱过铝质高钾钙碱性-钾玄质A型花岗岩,是Columbia超大陆裂解事件的产物。中元古代晚期-新元古代早期以过铝质-强过铝质钙碱性-钾玄质S型花岗岩为主,新元古代中期以准铝质-强过铝质钙碱性-高钾钙碱性A型花岗岩为主,分别对应Rodinia超大陆的汇聚和裂解事件。中寒武世-志留纪花岗岩是洋陆转换过程中的产物,约440 Ma加厚基性下地壳部分熔融形成的低Mg埃达克岩的广泛出现指示祁连地区全面进入碰撞造山阶段。泥盆纪-早石炭世花岗岩代表后碰撞伸展阶段岩浆岩组合,发育准铝质-强过铝质低钾拉斑-钾玄质等一系列花岗岩。中二叠世-晚三叠世花岗岩以准铝质-弱过铝质钙碱性-高钾钙碱性I型花岗岩为主,有少量弱过铝质高钾钙碱性A型花岗岩,是宗务隆洋俯冲消减以及碰撞后伸展过程的产物。     

Use of REE in apatite to discriminate the petrogeno-mineralization series of granites

REE studies of apatites in two series of granites, including more than ten types of rock and several tens of rock masses in eight provinces of South China permit us to come to some new understanding and hence the following conclusions have been drawn. Apatites in granites of different series show significant differences in REE distribution pattern, probably due to different material sources. Therefore, REE partition characteristics can be used to discriminate granites of different sources. Apatite in granite of the Nanling series (of shallow-seated source) has a lower content ofΣ REE (4571 ppm on average). Y is the highest of the REE group.Σ Y is rich relative toΣ Ce, thus giving rise to relatively lowΣCe/ΣY ratio (0.68 on average). Eu shows strong depletion, andδ Eu is extremely low (0.135 on average). The REE distribution patterns are represented by a group of “V”-shaped symmetric curves. Apatite in granites of the Yangtze series are relatively high inΣ REE (8571.3 ppm on average). Ce is the highest of the REE. group.Σ Ce is rich relative toΣ Y and theΣCe/ΣY is relatively high (7.15 on average). The chondrite-normalized REE distribution patterns are characterized by a group of rightward-inclined curves.     

Origin of granites in an Archean high-grade terrane,southern India

Archean deep-level granites in southern India are similar geochemically to young granites from continentalmargin arc systems. They exhibit light REE enriched patterns with variable, but chiefly positive Eu anomalies. This is in striking contrast to the negative Eu anomalies typical in high-level Archean granites. In addition, the deep-level granites are relatively enriched in Ba and Sr and depleted in total REE and high field strength elements (HFSE). One pluton, the Sankari granite, has unusually low contents of REE and HFSE. Most of the deep-level granites appear to represent cumulates with variable amounts of trapped liquid and of minor phases, resulting from fractional crystallization of a granitic parent. Such parental granitic magmas can be produced by batch melting of Archean tonalite at middle to lower crustal depths. The Sankari granite requires a tonalitic source depleted in REE and HFSE. Archean tonalites and tonalitic charnockites exhibit original igneous geochemical signatures and their average composition does not show a significant Eu anomaly. Hence, they cannot represent the positive Eu-anomaly complement to the negative Eu-anomaly, high-level granites. Our results suggest that Archean deep-level granites may represent this complement. Such granite may form in waterrich zones in the middle or lower crust and be produced in response to dehydration of the lower crust by a rising CO₂-rich fluid phase.