What determines the mass of the most massive star cluster in a galaxy: statistics, physics or disruption?

In many different galactic environments the cluster initial mass function (CIMF) is well described by a power law with index ?2. This implies a linear relation between the mass of the most massive cluster (M _max?) and the number of clusters. Assuming a constant cluster formation rate and no disruption of the most massive clusters it also means that M _max? increases linearly with age when determining M _max? in logarithmic age bins. We observe this increase in five out of the seven galaxies in our sample, suggesting that M _max? is determined by the size of the sample. It also means that massive clusters are very stable against disruption, in disagreement with the mass-independent disruption (MID) model. For the clusters in M51 and the Antennae galaxies, the size-of-sample prediction breaks down around 10⁶ M_⊙, suggesting that this is a physical upper limit to the masses of star clusters in these galaxies. In this method there is a degeneracy between MID and a CIMF truncation. We show how the cluster luminosity function can serve as a tool to distinguish between the two.     

Radial dependence of solar wind parameters in the ecliptic (1.1 R ⊙−61 AU)

The radial dependencies of four solar wind parameters (plasma density N, velocity V, temperature T, and magnitude of the interplanetary magnetic field B) are derived from remote sensing data of the solar corona and from in situ measurements in the heliosphere (Helios-1, 2, Pioneer-10, 11, and Voyager-1, 2). Using doubly logarithmic scaling (solar wind parameter vs radial distance from the Sun) one finds two distinct intervals in the ecliptic, i.e., an exponential section within, approximately, the inner heliosphere and a linear section - up to at least 61 AU - in the outer heliosphere.     

The photospheric spectrum of the pre-FUor V1331 CYG: Is it a star or a disk?

The T Tauri variable V1331 Cyg is characterized by an intensive emission spectrum, by signatures of a high rate of mass loss, and also by presence of a circular reflection nebula. According to these characteristics, the star can be considered as a possible pre-FUor star. Up to the present the photospheric spectrum of the star has not been recorded. In this work we analyze the high-resolution spectra of V1331 Cyg that were obtained by G.H. Herbig with the HIRES spectrograph at the Keck-1 telescope in 2004 and 2007. For the first time the numerous photospheric lines of the star have been detected and the spectral class has been estimated, viz., G7-K0 IV. It is revealed that the projection of the rotation velocity is lower than the width of instrumental profile (vsini < 6 km/s); this means that the angle between the stellar axis of rotation and the line of sight is small. The radial velocity of the star derived from the photospheric lines is RV = ?15.0 ± 0.3 km/s. The difference in radial velocities for 2004 and 2007 is lower than the measurement error. The photospheric spectrum is veiled considerably, but the amount of veiling is not the same in different lines. This depends on the line strength in the template spectrum of the G7 IV star: in the weakest lines (EW = 5–10 mÅ in the template spectrum) VF ≈ 1 and it increases up to 4–5 in stronger lines. The H_α and H_β lines demonstrate classical P Cyg profiles, which testifies to an intensive wind with a maximal velocity of about 400 km/s. In addition, the emission lines of Fe II, Mg I and K I and of several other elements are accompanied by a narrow blue-shifted absorption at ?150...?250 km/s. The emission spectrum of V1331 Cyg is rich in the narrow (FWHM = 30–50 km/s) lines of neutral and ionized metals showing the excitation temperature T _exc = 3800 ± 300 K. The stellar mass M* ≈ 2.8M _⊙ and radius R* ≈ 5R _⊙ are estimated.     

One hundred years of observations of the Be star HDE 245770 (the X-ray binary A0535+26/V725 Tau): The end of an active phase?

UBV observations of the X-ray binary system A0535+26/V725 Tau at the Crimean Station of the Sternberg Astronomical Institute in 1980–1998 are presented. Based on our and published data, we analyze the photometric history of the star from 1898. Over a period of 100 years, the star apparently showed all three activity phases (B, Be, Be-shell) of Be stars. We conclude that the X-ray activity of the object is attributable to the 1970–1997 outburst of the Be star due to envelope ejection. The star's colors during the minimum light of 1998 and its 1953–1956 colors (before the outburst) correspond to the spectral type B0–B1 at the color excesses E _B-V = 0.74 and E _U-B = 0.48, in agreement with the current spectral type O9.7. The minimum light of 1998 and the color excesses are used to determine the colors of the additional radiation, analyze their evolution during the 1973–1997 outburst, and refine the distance to the object (3 kpc). The colors of the additional radiation at maximum light of the star (1973–1980) match the colors of a hydrogen plasma with T _e = 1.5 × 10⁴ K which is optically thick in the Balmer continuum. The brightness decline corresponds to a decrease in the optical depth of the plasma; at $V \simeq 9_.^m 1$ , it becomes optically thin in the Balmer continuum with T _e = 10⁴ K and N _e = 10¹⁰ ? 10¹² cm^?3. This conclusion is consistent with the model of a circumstellar envelope but is inconsistent with the existence of an accretion disk around the neutron star. All the additional radiation responsible for the optical variability is produced by a single source. The intensity of the Hα emission line at maximum light (1975–1980) is triple its intensity in 1987–1997, when quasi-periodic light fluctuations with P ≈ 1400^d were observed [1]. At this time, the line intensity correlated with brightness. The Hα line was in absorption at the minimum of 1998, and, at present, the star's active phase appears to have ended.     

Identification of absorption lines of short half-life actinides in the spectrum of Przybylski’s star (HD 101065)

Absorption lines of some actinides, namely, actinium (Z = 89), protactinium (91), neptunium (93), plutonium (94), americium (95), curium (96), berkelium (97), californium (98), and einsteinium (99), were identified in the spectrum of one of the most peculiar main-sequence stars HD 101065 (Przybylski’s star). In the identification we used a high-resolution spectrum (R = 80 000) acquired at the 8.2-m ESO telescope.     

A solar super‐flare as cause for the 14C variation in AD 774/5?

We present further considerations regarding the strong ¹⁴C variation in AD 774/5. For its cause, either a solar super‐flare or a short gamma‐ray burst were suggested. We show that all kinds of stellar or neutron star flares would be too weak for the observed energy input at Earth in AD 774/5. Even though Maehara et al. (2012) present two super‐flares with ∼10³⁵ erg of presumably solar‐type stars, we would like to caution: These two stars are poorly studied and may well be close binaries, and/or having a M‐type dwarf companion, and/or may be much younger and/or much more magnetic than the Sun – in any such case, they might not be true solar analog stars. From the frequency of large stellar flares averaged over all stellar activity phases (maybe obtained only during grand activity maxima), one can derive (a limit of) the probability for a large solar flare at a random time of normal activity: We find the probability for one flare within 3000 years to be possibly as low as 0.3 to 0.008 considering the full 1σ error range. Given the energy estimate in Miyake et al. (2012) for the AD 774/5 event, it would need to be ∼2000 stronger than the Carrington event as solar super‐flare. If the AD 774/5 event as solar flare would be beamed (to an angle of only ∼24°), 100 times lower energy would be needed. A new AD 774/5 energy estimate by Usoskin et al. (2013) with a different carbon cycle model, yielding 4 ot 6 time lower ¹⁴C production, predicts 4–6 times less energy. If both reductions are applied, the AD 774/5 event would need to be only ∼4 times stronger than the Carrington event in 1859 (if both had similar spectra). However, neither ¹⁴C nor ¹⁰Be peaks were found around AD 1859. Hence, the AD 774/5 event (as solar flare) either was not beamed that strongly, and/or it would have been much more than 4‐6 times stronger than Carrington, and/or the lower energy estimate (Usoskin et al. 2013) is not correct, and/or such solar flares cannot form (enough) ¹⁴C and ¹⁰Be. The 1956 solar energetic particle event was followed by a small decrease in directly observed cosmic rays. We conclude that large solar super‐flares remain very unlikely as the cause for the ¹⁴C increase in AD 774/5. (© 2014 WILEY‐VCH Verlag GmbH & Co. KGaA, Weinheim)     

The phenomenon of the galaxy NGC 6286: A forming polar ring or a superwind?

We present our observations of the pair of interacting galaxies NGC 6285/86 carried out with the 6-m Special Astrophysical Observatory (SAO) telescope using 1D and 2D spectroscopy. The observations of NGC 6286 with a long-slit spectrograph (UAGS) near the Hα line revealed the rotation of the gaseous disk around an axis offset by 5″–7″ from the photometric center and a luminous gas at a distance up to 9 kpc in a direction perpendicular to the galactic plane. Using a multipupil fiber spectrograph (MPFS), we constructed the velocity fields of the stellar and gaseous components in the central region of this galaxy, which proved to be similar. The close radial velocities of the pair and the wide (5′×5′) field of view of the scanning Fabry-Perot interferometer (IFP) allowed us to simultaneously obtain images in the Hα and [N II]λ6583 lines and in the continuum, as well as to construct the radial velocity fields and to map the distribution of the [N II]λ6583/Hα ratio for both galaxies. Based on all these data, we studied the gas kinematics in the galaxies, constructed their rotation curves, and estimated their masses (2 × 10¹¹M_⊙ for NGC 6286 and 1.2 × 10¹⁰M_⊙ for NGC 6285). We found no evidence of gas rotation around the major axis of NGC 6286, which argues against the assumption that this galaxy has a forming polar ring. The IFP observations revealed an emission nebula around this galaxy with a structure characteristic of superwind galaxies. The large [N II]λ6583/Hα ratio, which suggests the collisional excitation of its emission, and the high infrared luminosity are additional arguments for the hypothesis of a superwind in the galaxy NGC 6286. A close encounter between the two galaxies was probably responsible for the starburst and the bipolar outflow of hot gas from the central region of the disk.     

Large silica‐rich igneous‐textured inclusions in the Buzzard Coulee chondrite: Condensates,differentiates, or impact melts?

Abstract– We studied three large (2–4 mm diameter) igneous‐textured inclusions in the Buzzard Coulee (H4) chondrite using microanalytical techniques (OLM, SEM, EMPA, SIMS) to better elucidate the origins of igneous inclusions in ordinary chondrites. The inclusions are clasts that come in two varieties (1) white inclusions Bz‐1 and Bz‐2 represent a nearly holocrystalline assemblage of low‐Ca and high‐Ca pyroxene (63–66 area%) and cristobalite (33–36%) and (2) tan inclusion Bz‐3 is glass‐rich (approximately 60%) with low‐Ca and high‐Ca pyroxene phenocrysts. The bulk compositions of the inclusions determined by modal reconstruction are all SiO₂‐rich (approximately 67 wt% for Bz‐1 and Bz‐2, approximately 62% for Bz‐3), but Bz‐3 is enriched in incompatible elements (e.g., REE approximately 4–5 × CI abundances), whereas Bz‐2 and Bz‐1 are depleted in those elements that are most incompatible in pyroxene (e.g., La‐Ho approximately 0.15–0.4 × CI abundances). These bulk compositions do not resemble what one would expect for partial or complete shock melting of a chondritic precursor, and show no evidence for overall volatility control. We infer that the inclusions originated through igneous differentiation and FeO reduction, with Bz‐3 forming as an “andesitic” partial melt (approximately 30–40% partial melting of an H chondrite precursor), and Bz‐1 and Bz‐2 forming as pyroxene‐cristobalite cumulates from an Si‐rich melt. We suggest that both types of melts experienced a period of transit through a cold, low‐pressure space environment in which cooling, FeO reduction, and interaction with a vapor occurred. Melts may have been lofted into space by excavation or splashing during collisions, or by pyroclastic volcanism. Our results indicate intriguing similarities between the inclusions in Buzzard Coulee and the silicates in some iron (IIE‐type) and stony iron (IVA‐type) meteorites, suggesting a genetic relationship.     

Complete hydrothermal re‐equilibration of zircon in the Maniitsoq structure,West Greenland: A 3001 Ma minimum age of impact?

Zircon in five samples of variably comminuted, melted, and hydrothermally altered orthogneiss from the Maniitsoq structure of southern West Greenland yield a weighted mean ²⁰⁷Pb/²⁰⁶Pb age of 3000.9 ± 1.9 Ma (ion probe data, n = 37). The age data constitute a rare example of pervasive and nearly complete isotopic resetting of zircon during a regional hydrothermal event. Many zircon grains are homogeneous or display weak flame‐like patterns in backscattered electron images. Other grains show complex internal textures, where homogeneous, high‐U fronts commonly cut across relict igneous‐type oscillatory zonation. Inclusions of quartz, plagioclase, mica, and other Al ± Na ± Ca ± Fe‐bearing silicates are very common. In two samples, selective replacement of zircon with baddeleyite occurs along concentric zones with relict igneous zonation, and as specks a few microns large within recrystallized, high‐U areas. We interpret the 3000.9 ± 1.9 Ma date as the minimum age of the recently proposed impact structure at Maniitsoq. The great geographical extent and intensity of the hydrothermal event suggest massive invasion of water into the currently exposed crust, implying that the age of the hydrothermal alteration would closely approximate the age of the proposed impact at Maniitsoq. At the western margin of the Taserssuaq tonalite complex, which postdates the Maniitsoq event, a ²⁰⁷Pb/²⁰⁶Pb mean age of 2994.6 ± 3.4 Ma obtained from zircon has mostly retained igneous‐type oscillatory zonation. A subsequent thermal event at approximately 2975 Ma is recorded in several samples by zircon with baddeleyite replacement textures.     

Petrology of unique achondrite Queen Alexandra Range 93148: A piece of the pallasite (howardite‐eucrite‐diogenite?) parent body?

Abstract— Queen Alexandra Range (QUE) 93148 is a small (1.1 g) olivine‐rich achondrite (mg 86) that contains variable amounts of orthopyroxene (mg 87) and kamacite (6.7 wt% Ni), with minor augite. Olivine in QUE 93148 contains an unusual suite of inclusions: (1) 5 × 100 μm sized lamellae with a CaO‐ and Cr₂O₃‐rich (～10 and 22 wt%, respectively) composition that may represent a submicrometer‐scale intergrowth of chromite and pyroxene(s); (2) 75 × 500 μm sized lamellar symplectites composed of chromite and two pyroxenes, with minor metal; (3) 15–20 μm sized, irregularly‐shaped symplectites composed of chromite and pyroxene(s); (4) 100–150 μm sized, elliptical inclusions composed of chromite, two pyroxenes, metal, troilite, and rare whitlockite. Type 1, 2, and 3 inclusions probably formed by exsolution from the host olivine during slow cooling, whereas type 4 more likely resulted from early entrapment of silicate and metallic melts followed by closed‐system oxidation. Queen Alexandra Range 93148 can be distinguished from most other olivine‐rich achondrites (ureilites, winonaites, lodranites, acapulcoites, brachinites, Eagle‐Station‐type pallasites, and pyroxene pallasites), as well as from mesosiderites, by some or all of the following properties: O‐isotopic composition, Fe‐Mn‐Mg relations of olivine, CaO and Cr₂O₃ contents of olivine, orthopyroxene compositions, molar Cr/(Cr + Al) ratios of chromite, metal composition, texture, and the presence of the inclusions. In terms of many of these properties, it shows an affinity to main‐group pallasites. Nevertheless, it cannot be identified as belonging to this group. Meteorite QUE 93148 appears to be a unique achondrite. Possibly it should be considered to be a pyroxene pallasite that is genetically related to main‐group pallasites. Alternatively, it may be derived from the mantle of the pallasite (howardite‐eucrite‐diogenite?) parent body.     

The exceptionally hot summer of 2007 in Athens, Greece — A typical summer in the future climate?

Summer 2007 was abnormally warm for many areas of southeastern Europe, the Balkan peninsula and parts of Asia Minor with departures from the seasonal means exceeding 4 °C in some areas but also distinct periods of extremely hot weather. Greece experienced very likely the warmest summer of its instrumental history with record breaking temperatures being observed at a number of stations. The historical air temperature record of the National Observatory of Athens (NOA), extending back to the 19th century, was used in order to highlight the rarity of the event. Seasonal (June to August) temperature anomalies at NOA exceeded 3 °C corresponding to more than 3 standard deviations with respect to the 1961–1990 reference period. The record value of 44.8 °C was observed at NOA on 26 June 2007 (previous record 43 °C in June 1916) during the first and most intense heat wave that affected the area. The study places summer 2007 in the climatology of the previous century and also examines whether the statistics of summer 2007 have similarities with Mediterranean summers of the future. An ensemble of regional climate model simulations undertaken for the European domain indicate that summer 2007 reflects the daily maximum temperatures that are projected to occur in the latter part of the 21st century. The analysis of temperature data from other less urbanized stations indicates that the urban heat effect in Athens contributed positively to the anomalies of the nocturnal temperatures. The abnormally hot summer of 2007 is perhaps not the proof but a strong indicator of what eastern Mediterranean summers could resemble in future.     

Positioning and control of the orbital structure of the <Emphasis Type="Italic">Arktika-M</Emphasis> innovative space system (marking the 50 years of Lavochkin Association’s space activities)

The orbital positioning options and orbital structure control methods are considered for the Arktika-M highly elliptical hydrometeorological space system, which is designed for continuous 24-hour imaging of the Earth’s Arctic region. The purpose of the control is to ensure on-going performance during the entire operational life of the space system given a major spatial and temporal deformation of its orbital structure due to the nonuniform evolution of the orbital parameters. The highly elliptical Molniya orbits are considered. The proposed control procedure is based on the minimization of the spatial and temporal deformation of the orbital structure by means of the differential choice of the initial orbital parameters during the deployment and follow-up of the space system.     

Coupled orbit-attitude dynamics of high area-to-mass ratio (HAMR) objects: influence of solar radiation pressure, Earth’s shadow and the visibility in light curves

The orbital and attitude dynamics of uncontrolled Earth orbiting objects are perturbed by a variety of sources. In research, emphasis has been put on operational space vehicles. Operational satellites typically have a relatively compact shape, and hence, a low area-to-mass ratio (AMR), and are in most cases actively or passively attitude stabilized. This enables one to treat the orbit and attitude propagation as decoupled problems, and in many cases the attitude dynamics can be neglected completely. The situation is different for space debris objects, which are in an uncontrolled attitude state. Furthermore, the assumption that a steady-state attitude motion can be averaged over data reduction intervals may no longer be valid. Additionally, a subset of the debris objects have significantly high area-to-mass ratio (HAMR) values, resulting in highly perturbed orbits, e.g. by solar radiation pressure, even if a stable AMR value is assumed. Note, this assumption implies a steady-state attitude such that the average cross-sectional area exposed to the sun is close to constant. Time-varying solar radiation pressure accelerations due to attitude variations will result in un-modeled errors in the state propagation. This work investigates the evolution of the coupled attitude and orbit motion of HAMR objects. Standardized pieces of multilayer insulation (MLI) are simulated in a near geosynchronous orbits. It is assumed that the objects are rigid bodies and are in uncontrolled attitude states. The integrated effects of the Earth gravitational field and solar radiation pressure on the attitude motion are investigated. The light curves that represent the observed brightness variations over time in a specific viewing direction are extracted. A sensor model is utilized to generate light curves with visibility constraints and magnitude uncertainties as observed by a standard ground based telescope. The photometric models will be needed when combining photometric and astrometric observations for estimation of orbit and attitude dynamics of non-resolved space objects.     

An unusual compound object in Yamato 793408 (H3.2‐an): The missing link between compound chondrules and macrochondrules?

We found a large (~2 mm) compound object in the primitive Yamato 793408 (H3.2‐an) chondrite. It consists mostly of microcrystalline material, similar to chondrule mesostasis, that hosts an intact barred olivine (BO) chondrule. The object contains euhedral pyroxene and large individual olivine grains. Some olivine cores are indicative of refractory forsterites with very low Fe‐ and high Ca, Al‐concentrations, although no ¹⁶O enrichment. The entire object is most likely a new and unique type, as no similar compound object has been described so far. We propose that it represents an intermediate stage between compound chondrules and macrochondrules, and formed from the collision between chondrules at low velocities (below 1 m s^?1) at high temperatures (around 1550 °C). The macrochondrule also trapped and preserved a smaller BO chondrule. This object appears to be the first direct evidence for a genetic link between compound chondrules and macrochondrules. In accordance with previous suggestions and studies, compound chondrules and macrochondrules likely formed by the same mechanism of chondrule collisions, and each represents different formation conditions, such as ambient temperature and collision speed.     

Revisiting the radiation history of fossil meteorites from Sweden (Rebuttal to a comment by Wieler et al. On the paper by V.A. Alexeev “Radiation History of Fossil Meteorites from Sweden,” published in solar system research, 44, 311–319)

From the analysis of the data acquired for the chromite grains recovered from fossil meteorites from Sweden (Heck et al., 2004, 2008), the dependence of the exposure age of meteorites on a mass of the examined samples was obtained (Alexeev, 2010). This dependence, whatever its nature, puts into question the validity of the conclusion on a long lasting (over the course of 1–2 Myr) and substantial (by 1–2 orders of magnitude) increase in the intensity of the flux of meteorites (L-chondrites) that fell onto the Earth about 470 Myr ago. All of the fossil meteorites found in southern Sweden could be the fragments of a single meteorite that fell as a meteorite shower in the Thorsberg quarry region ∼470 Myr ago.